The Middle East and Africa

Mesopotamia, with its two great rivers, Tigris
and Euphrates, bridged Europe and Africa
to Persia and on to India

In the late 19^th century, despite Britain’s domination of the seas – and hence world trade – Germany moved vigorously to build her own empire across the globe. The pace of acquisition increased following the accession of Kaiser Wilhelm II to the throne. Germany became a significant player in Africa. In the far east, Wilhelm was determined to be a player in the emerging geopolitical situation, and in the mid 1890s established its only major overseas naval headquarters at Tsing-tao. But the Kaiser’s favourite expansionist scheme was overland – the Berlin to Baghdad railroad. By wooing the weakening Ottoman empire, he planned to build his railway through Constantinople, and onwards to threaten Britain’s vital middle eastern interests, in Mesopotamia (today mostly Iraq), Palestine, Sinai and Egypt. Between the latter two, of course, lay Ferdinand de Lessep’s great creation, the Suez Canal. Although the Ottomans held most of the eastern Mediterranean, their influence was waning, and Britain was busy building strategic links with the various Arab tribes and factions. Britain was particularly concerned about Germany’s ambition for Baghdad, which in turn threatened Persia, and even India.

From the outset of the war a British military base was established on the Persian Gulf by the Shatt-el-arab, the final confluence of the two great regional rivers- the Tigris and Euphrates. Following Turkey’s entrance to the war in late 1914, skirmishes with advancing Turks built up over several weeks. In early 1915, reinforcements of Indian brigades were brought in, and by April this force had grown to two divisions strength – the 6^th, under General Charles Townshend, and the 12^th, under General George Gorringe.

Sir John Nixon

In overall command was Sir John Nixon, a veteran commander of British armies in India. His orders were to advance to Basra and its hinterland, in preparation for further advances towards Baghdad if necessary. In heavy fighting to the west of Basra the British Imperial forces were successful in routing the Turks. Emboldened to press on northwards up the Tigris to Amarah (a further 150 miles, and 300 miles from their starting point), Gorringe led his division, while Townshend moved further east to cut off any Turks retreating towrds Baghdad. Gorringe also had to cover his western flank, which necessitated striking out due west to take the city of Nasiriyeh, a further 100 miles away on the river Euphrates. The terrain, marshes and swamps, and the extreme heat were unforgiving, but the Indian battalions were accustomed to tough conditions and after a number of actions with gunboats Nasiriyeh was successfully occupied.

In August Nixon directed Townshend to return to the course of the Tigris and to move towards taking Kut. Through that month and September Townshend advanced gradually, with intermittent support from Arab tribes, and on 29^th September, Townshend’s cavalry entered an undefended Kut. The Turks had retreated north westwards across the plains towards Baghdad.

This campaign was Britain’s most successful during the difficult year of 1915. However, their communication lines were now very stretched, and further progress towards Baghdad would prove difficult.

German Colonial Africa 1914

Africa. Africa lacked the strategic significance of Mesopotamia with its oil pipelines and gateways to the Suez Canal, Persia and India. Actions there were focal (although on large geographical scale) with forces only a fraction of those occupying eastern and western theatres of war.

Turkish/Ottoman attempts to advance through Sinai to the Suez Canal and Egypt and were easily repulsed by the British and colonial forces there. In West Africa the German Empire included Cameroon and parts of Nigeria. As in Mesopotamia, arduous climatic and topographical conditions were overcome by allied forces – on this occasion British and French troops – gradually to surround German held areas and drive them towards the sea. By 

mid 1915 the Germans were effectively prisoners in their own region.

The largest action took place in German South West Africa. General Botha’s forces (ironically British Empire and Dutch Boer troops fighting alongside each other) conducted a brilliant campaign from January 1915 through to July, progressively encircling the Germans in their capital Windhoek. On 9^th July the Germans surrendered, and around 5000 prisoners and their equipment were taken. As Buchan notes: “Three hundred thousand square miles of territory had been conquered at a less cost than a minor action in the European theatre.”

In German East Africa (approximating to Tanzania today) a very different scenario unfolded. In late 1914 various incursions had been made from the neighbouring British colonies, but in early 1915 German responses threw the British out, and even took over some positions in British territory. The British response was to impose a naval blockade of the entire coast – some 300 miles. This trapped a German battle cruiser, the Konigsberg, which hid for several months among swamps and jungle before being snared and sunk. The Germans in East Africa were thus isolated, but not quite impotent. They managed to carry on a guerrilla style campaign for most of the war, tying down a relatively large number of British troops who, as a consequence, were unable to contribute at the Western Front. action.