 |
| Ceremonial Declaration of War on the Entente by the Ottoman Empire November 13th 1914 |
To the east of the power blocs of Europe - the triple alliance and the triple entente - the continental land mass stretched away through Turkey and the Balkans and on to the middle east and the Caucasus. For the previous 600 years most of this land had been part of the Ottoman Empire, or at least under its influence. Like its opponent the Habsburg Empire, the Ottoman was in long term decline, and by the outset of the War effectively comprised only the nation of Turkey. With its differing relationships across the patchwork of Balkan and Caucasus nations, Turkey's stance was viewed as of strategic importance by all the great powers. Most of the smaller nations were either strongly pro-German or pro-Entente. Turkey was more ambivalent but was always likely to be anti-Russian, given Russia's longstanding designs on Constantinople as the gateway to Mediterranean for its fleet and trade. The Young Turks, who had taken control in 1909, were anti-Islam, anti-National and politically unscrupulous. Britain had an uneasy relationship with Turkey because of its geographical position vis a vis the empire. Churchill was there in 1911 to build alliances and meet the Young Turks, led by Enver Pasha who was avowedly pro-German. Although he had little time for them, Churchill did commit Britain to building and supplying two Dreadnought battleships. This arrangement was to have profound consequences in the build up to war when the British felt compelled to impound the ships just as they were about to launched from Newcastle.
The Balkan wars of 1912-13 had pitted
Turkey against Greece, and it was difficult to see them declaring for the same
side in the great conflict now engulfing the continent. Also key was the
role of Bulgaria, which did most of the heavy and successful fighting in Turkey
in the first Balkan war, only to see Greece and Serbia take the territory
it had gained. Bulgaria attacked them in response, allowing a
Turkish counter attack in the second Balkan war, and an incursion into
northern Bulgaria by Roumania. At the end of the second Balkan war, Bulgaria
was left as a brooding, bitter, threatening neutral party, led by its influential (and Germanophile by family links) King, Ferdinand.
On 18th August, at the outbreak of the war, the Ottoman government declared neutrality. On 19th August, Venizelos, the Greek Prime Minister, put all his country’s resources at the disposal of the Entente. Churchill and others were keenly in favour, seeing this as a way of getting Greece, Serbia, Roumania and Bulgaria on side, as in any case it seemed likely that Turkey would drift to Germany. At that stage such a group could easily take the Gallipoli peninsula and protect the Dardanelles for the Allies. Grey, however, did not want to accept the Greek offer – he preferred to keep Turkey (and the region in general) as neutral. There was a lot of prevarication on all sides, but it was later discovered that a secret Turco-German treaty had been signed as early as 2nd August.
On 18th August, at the outbreak of the war, the Ottoman government declared neutrality. On 19th August, Venizelos, the Greek Prime Minister, put all his country’s resources at the disposal of the Entente. Churchill and others were keenly in favour, seeing this as a way of getting Greece, Serbia, Roumania and Bulgaria on side, as in any case it seemed likely that Turkey would drift to Germany. At that stage such a group could easily take the Gallipoli peninsula and protect the Dardanelles for the Allies. Grey, however, did not want to accept the Greek offer – he preferred to keep Turkey (and the region in general) as neutral. There was a lot of prevarication on all sides, but it was later discovered that a secret Turco-German treaty had been signed as early as 2nd August.
On 28th September, Turkey closed the
Dardanelles to naval traffic. These were
vital for Russian commerce and for communications between the Western Allies
and Russia. By this time two battle cruisers of the German fleet - the Goben
and Breslau - were safely in the Black Sea, having escaped a prolonged British
Navy pursuit in the first days of the war. This highly embarrassing episode
arose by combination of vacillation and incompetence by the Fleet, and heads had rolled.
On the 19 October, Goben and Breslau were donated by Germany to the Ottoman Navy, thereby compensating them for the refusal of Britain to release the two commissioned Dreadnoughts. The German crews stayed with the ships, and on 29th October bombarded the Black Sea ports of Sebastopol and Theodosia. The Grand Vizier expressed regret to Allies for the unsanctioned operations of the Navy, but this was the final straw for Russia. They declared war, and despite diplomatic activity, on 5th November the United Kingdom and France also declared war on the Ottoman Empire. On 14 November, the Ottoman majority government, following a very public ceremony on 13th (pictured above) stated a "declaration of existence of the war". An ever present source of antagonism to Britain and its allies during this time was General Liman von Sanders, a German adviser to the Turkish army. He would bring much more suffering to the Allies the following year.
On the 19 October, Goben and Breslau were donated by Germany to the Ottoman Navy, thereby compensating them for the refusal of Britain to release the two commissioned Dreadnoughts. The German crews stayed with the ships, and on 29th October bombarded the Black Sea ports of Sebastopol and Theodosia. The Grand Vizier expressed regret to Allies for the unsanctioned operations of the Navy, but this was the final straw for Russia. They declared war, and despite diplomatic activity, on 5th November the United Kingdom and France also declared war on the Ottoman Empire. On 14 November, the Ottoman majority government, following a very public ceremony on 13th (pictured above) stated a "declaration of existence of the war". An ever present source of antagonism to Britain and its allies during this time was General Liman von Sanders, a German adviser to the Turkish army. He would bring much more suffering to the Allies the following year.
 |
| Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria. Pro German and angry |
The Caucasus
 |
| Enver Pasha Leader of the Young Turks 1914-18 |
Another front now started to open up in December in the east, where Enver Pasha was determined to lead an assault against the relatively weak Russian border forces. Leading 150,000 Turks, he invaded the Caucasus against 100,000 Russians, just as the winter was setting in. It became a disaster. Stuck in the mountains in mid winter, and unable to progress against well defended Russian positions the Turks became stranded. By the New Year they were dying in their thousands from starvation and exposure.
No comments:
Post a Comment