tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-26847008078689110722024-02-07T07:46:31.902+00:00WW1 - I Was There In Spiritseanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.comBlogger177125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-9075486776624305262019-07-02T10:28:00.000+01:002019-07-02T10:28:22.137+01:00Conclusions and Appendices<div class="MsoNormal">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdN8uKtKXbe4xje-RCwzPwcDAUu5hH5qJ94kB87Ox07Ju10pTXYghbqImtwI502yQZMv0ZAD2wjEAWtwd9_2-Q4-CgdYjkHziqJ1R864paS99J4h5kIeeNwNvZAAUkWlQTm4CV2_Oezyy3/s1600/ww1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="390" data-original-width="700" height="222" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdN8uKtKXbe4xje-RCwzPwcDAUu5hH5qJ94kB87Ox07Ju10pTXYghbqImtwI502yQZMv0ZAD2wjEAWtwd9_2-Q4-CgdYjkHziqJ1R864paS99J4h5kIeeNwNvZAAUkWlQTm4CV2_Oezyy3/s400/ww1.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Iconic view of WW1 trench warfare </span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US"><i>Over the past five years this blog has
tracked the centenaries of the events of WW1. On numerous occasions, revisiting
the terrible actions and suffering, the question has loomed large – ‘Surely
this could have been prevented, or stopped?’ and it remains difficult to
believe that such a continuing loss would be tolerated by public opinion today,
whether in Europe or anywhere else.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i><br /></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">In 2014 a televised discussion between historians Max
Hastings and Niall Ferguson was featured in the blog post of 14<sup>th</sup>
November that year. The debate was whether WW1 could have been prevented and,
in particular, whether Britain should have stayed out of it. At the time I came
down firmly on the side of Hastings’ argument that a worse war would have
followed within a few years. Now, re-reading Ferguson’s cogent arguments in his
book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Pity of War</i> I am more
persuaded that WW1 as we know it would not have happened if Britain had stayed
out. War would not have been prevented, but a shorter conflict confined to
Europe would most likely have given victory to Germany and hegemony over Europe
(see Post 18/11/2018). What followed may have been more like the Napoleonic
wars than world war, and the attritional battles that cost so many lives may not have happened. With Germany ruling Europe maybe a resurgent nationalism in
France would have thrown up a French Hitler? Who knows? And similar reasoning
could be applied to Britain’s entry into WW2. Exploring endless ‘what ifs’ is
interesting, but ultimately what happened is what did happen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Germany signed Article 231 to accept
responsibility for starting the conflagration, but they never believed it, and
all the other players must take some share of the blame, even if for
misjudgements rather than jingoism. Yes, the Kaiser may have been a sociopath
who wanted a fleet and empire bigger than his grandmother Victoria’s. But by
1914, he knew he had lost the naval arms race. He had the best army in the
world, but it would have to fight on two fronts and eventually would, inevitably,
be heavily outnumbered. He had backed away from war before 1914, and tried to
do so again with Austria when he countered his earlier ‘blank cheque’
undertaking. But by then it was too late to stop Austria’s attack on Serbia.
Perhaps Wilhelm was most guilty of listening too much, and uncritically, to his
military leaders.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">“and
the heavens were rolling like a wheel on a track, and our sky was unfolding and
it would never look back” (Jackson Browne)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US">In the final crazy days of July 1914 a
chain of events did unfold rapidly, but were they all unstoppable? All parties
could have done things differently, but these are more what ifs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">And what about the vilified treaty of
Versailles and the next twenty years of world history? Recent posts have argued
that although mistakes were made and some terrible events followed, a great
many good things happened. Three oppressive empires were dismantled and the world moved
haltingly towards republics monarchies and democracy, largely holding off the forces of
revolution. The League of Nations eventually failed, but without it would the post
WW2 UN have been as robust as it has been for almost 75 years? It may not feel like it,
but there is less war in the world today than at any time in history (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Homo Deus</i>. Yuval Harari. Harper 2016).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><b>Appendices</b><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">Appendix 1 – the Armistice Terms
November 11<sup>th</sup> 1918<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<br /></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZfZCi3yNdpN3iGh30351O5VKiaJAk5BB9ltLIvkC9Wy5pmH_8HRDXkFTki0ITb1Z9JVrWBE9076bkHv_mUnEQdNLkOfXwkym_KTsLk1yr_AVikl33AdHe08bXGj1wcq1JPTp_YtcwFNFr/s1600/Armistice.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="331" data-original-width="220" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZfZCi3yNdpN3iGh30351O5VKiaJAk5BB9ltLIvkC9Wy5pmH_8HRDXkFTki0ITb1Z9JVrWBE9076bkHv_mUnEQdNLkOfXwkym_KTsLk1yr_AVikl33AdHe08bXGj1wcq1JPTp_YtcwFNFr/s400/Armistice.jpg" width="265" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Signed last page of the Armistice agreement</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US">There were 34 Clauses, with these main
points:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span><b style="font-size: 12pt;"><span lang="EN-US">A.
Western Front</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Termination of hostilities on the Western
Front, on land and in the air, within six hours of signature.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Immediate evacuation of France, Belgium,
Luxembourg, and Alsace-Lorraine within 15 days. Sick and wounded may be left
for Allies to care for.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Immediate repatriation of all inhabitants
of those four territories in German hands.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Surrender of matériel: 5,000 artillery
pieces, 25,000 machine guns, 3,000 minenwerfers, 1,700 aircraft (including all
night bombers), 5,000 railway locomotives, 150,000 railway carriages and 5,000
road trucks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Evacuation of territory on the west side of
the Rhine plus 30 km (19 mi) radius bridgeheads of the east side of the Rhine
at the cities of Mainz, Koblenz, and Cologne within 31 days.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Vacated territory to be occupied by Allied
troops, maintained at Germany's expense.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">No removal or destruction of civilian goods
or inhabitants in evacuated territories and all military matériel and premises
to be left intact.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">All minefields on land and sea to be
identified.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">All means of communication (roads,
railways, canals, bridges, telegraphs, telephones) to be left intact, as well
as everything needed for agriculture and industry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">B.
Eastern and African Fronts<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Immediate withdrawal of all German troops
in Romania and in what were the Ottoman Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and
the Russian Empire back to German territory as it was on 1 August 1914, although
tacit support was given to the pro-German West Russian Volunteer Army under the
guise of combating the Bolsheviks. The Allies to have access to these
countries.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Renunciation of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
with Russia and of the Treaty of Bucharest with Romania.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Evacuation of German forces in Africa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">C.
At sea<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Immediate cessation of all hostilities at
sea and surrender intact of all German submarines within 14 days.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Listed German surface vessels to be
interned within 7 days and the rest disarmed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Free access to German waters for Allied
ships and for those of the Netherlands, Norway, Denmark and Sweden.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The naval blockade of Germany to continue.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Immediate evacuation of all Black Sea ports
and handover of all captured Russian vessels.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">D.
General<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Immediate release of all Allied prisoners
of war and interned civilians, without reciprocity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Pending a financial settlement, surrender
of assets looted from Belgium, Romania and Russia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">Appendix 2 – The Articles of the Treaty
of Versailles</span><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><a href="http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/versa1.html"><br />
</a></span></u><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiG62YmFBaQqeKmJTsf3Zt9rncaeiX1tpUzEoWaQFnEHIpY_NlwGZNatEJYNBL0IwTD-G1CVJLzaESmwHGTwOijO6SOL7SaYy6kNyPLHoXkQCnDRfTbUrV9BwKJnnnghXZLNgs1P0aj7nKq/s1600/TofV.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="277" data-original-width="182" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiG62YmFBaQqeKmJTsf3Zt9rncaeiX1tpUzEoWaQFnEHIpY_NlwGZNatEJYNBL0IwTD-G1CVJLzaESmwHGTwOijO6SOL7SaYy6kNyPLHoXkQCnDRfTbUrV9BwKJnnnghXZLNgs1P0aj7nKq/s320/TofV.jpeg" width="210" /></a></span></u></div>
<u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Articles 1 - 30 and Annex </span></u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Covenant of the League of Nations. No German membership. If one
nation declares war, all members to stop it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><a href="http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/versa2.html">Articles 31
- 117 and Annexes</a> </span></u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Territorial rights and new borders relating to Belgium, Luxembourg,
Rhineland, Saar, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Heligoland, Free city of Danzig,
Schleswig and Russia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><a href="http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/versa3.html">Articles
118 - 158 and Annexes</a> </span></u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">German Rights and Interests Outside Germany –Chain, Africa and Pacific
islands<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><a href="http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/versa4.html">Articles
159 - 213</a> </span></u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Military,
Naval and Air Clauses<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><a href="http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/versa5.html">Articles
214 - 226</a> </span></u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Prisoners
of War. Graves and repatriation costs<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><a href="http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/versa6.html">Articles
227 - 230</a> </span></u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Penalties.
Arraignment of Kaiser Wilhelm and other war criminals<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><a href="http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/versa7.html">Articles
231 - 247 and Annexes</a> </span></u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">231 = Guilt Clause. Reparations to be determined by an Inter-Allied
Commission. Pay by 1921 20billion Goldmarks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><a href="http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/versa8.html">Articles
248 - </a></span><span lang="EN-US"><span style="color: purple;">312</span></span></u><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Financial and economic clauses<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<u><span style="color: purple;">Articles 313 – 320</span></u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Aerial Navigation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><a href="http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/versa11.html">Articles
321 - 386</a> </span></u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Ports,
Waterways and Railways<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><a href="http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/versa12.html">Articles
387 - 399</a> Labour<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt;">
<u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><a href="http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/versa13.html">Articles
400 - 440 and Annex</a> </span></u><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> Procedures,
guarantees and miscellaneous <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: large;">Appendix 3 – The Post War treaties</span><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Treaty
of Versailles<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">28<sup>th</sup> June 1919<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Treaty
of Saint-Germain-en-Laye<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">10<sup>th</sup> September 1919.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Confirmed the dismantling of the
Austro-Hungarian empire; </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Czechoslovakia
and southern Slav states that would become Yugoslavia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Romania expanded to include Transylvania and Bessarabia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Poland was granted land occupied by Austria and Germany.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Treaty of Neuilly<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">27<sup>th</sup> November 1919<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Confirmed Bulgaria’s loss of territory to the newly formed Yugoslavia,
to Romania and to Greece. It left Bulgaria without direct access to the Aegean
Sea.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Treaty of Trianon<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">4<sup>th</sup> June 1920<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Signed with Hungary. Removed </span><span lang="EN-US">two-thirds of the
land it controlled as part of the Austro-Hungarian empire. Three</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> million ethnic Hungarians now found themselves
living outside their country, most of them in Romania.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Treaty of Sevres<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>10<sup>th</sup> August 1920<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-bottom: 18.0pt; margin-left: 35.45pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "georgia"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Signed
with Turkey to confirm end of Ottoman empire. Its terms led to Turkey’s war of
independence in its war with Greece. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Britain received a mandate for Palestine and
Mesopotamia, and France one for Lebanon and Syria.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Treaty of Lausanne</span></b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>24<sup>th</sup>
July 1923<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">An extensive Treaty in which Ataturk held the upper hand and Allies were
no longer making the rules. Reversed much of the Treaty of Sevres to recognise
a sovereign, independent Turkey in return for Turkey’s permanent renunciation
of all other former Ottoman territories. It cont</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "georgia"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ained a convention for the exchange of Greek and Turkish populations
found on the wrong side of new borders.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #333333; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Treaty of Locarno<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b><span style="color: #333333; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5-16<sup>th</sup><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b>October 1925<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<span style="color: #333333; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Extraordinary treaty
that contained seven agreements aimed at improving post war reconciliation
between France and Germany, and reducing tension in the new borders on
Germany’s east. Initially hailed as a success, with three of its authors
receiving Nobel Peace Prizes, in the long term it probably did more to
facilitate Hitler’s moves in the 1930s that the Treaty of Versailles.</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-31919611069764681632019-06-30T10:03:00.001+01:002019-06-30T10:03:58.794+01:00The Treaty of Versailles 5: The Fall Out<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpTmb0D_9L7EeEjhtCB7OE6Z7o62WiY6g9wjIy-l0DK3OP0e4lI6y68Q0fhRRdwgcfaJdzSMDkIvvXv_E-lm8K0s5FREd8eKw0Bz7cFyqkO-6rW_zJ-IEw1caHSvcLzy8Szsw84ZmNX-1x/s1600/Versailles+1919.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="194" data-original-width="259" height="299" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpTmb0D_9L7EeEjhtCB7OE6Z7o62WiY6g9wjIy-l0DK3OP0e4lI6y68Q0fhRRdwgcfaJdzSMDkIvvXv_E-lm8K0s5FREd8eKw0Bz7cFyqkO-6rW_zJ-IEw1caHSvcLzy8Szsw84ZmNX-1x/s400/Versailles+1919.jpeg" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><i>Following Germany's signature,
the Treaty of Versailles had been endorsed by signatories from all thirty two
nations except one. The exception was not Italy, who had been mollified pending
further discussions, but China, whose delegates had returned home in disgust.
In turn nearly all of those signatories’ governments, with widely varying
enthusiasm, ratified the agreements. Germany’s assent perhaps only confirmed
their realisation that they could have done nothing to stop the threatened
invasion and occupation of Germany had they refused. There was much unfinished
business, and not just with Italy. Further negotiations and treaties would be
required for Europe, Africa, the Middle East and Asia (See Appendix), but the
main players were keen to leave the stage. </i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Wilson, Lloyd George
and Clemenceau left for home that evening, and by the next day Wilson was
crossing the Atlantic. His was to be one of the few ‘governments’ that would
not ratify. With supreme irony, the creator of the League of Nations was unable
to persuade his own Senate to agree to its charter, Republican opposition to it
being marshalled by Henry Cabot Lodge. An exhausted Wilson arrived home to this
crisis, and within weeks had left on a punishing national tour to raise support
for his beloved League. Not quite half way through the tour he collapsed with a
severe stroke. Hospitalised for weeks, he remained unable to govern
meaningfully until the end of his term of office. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The USA never signed the League Charter and
never joined the League. They signed a separate peace Treaty of Berlin with the Germans
later in 1919.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><br /></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Both Lloyd George and
Clemenceau found their authority lessened rather than enhanced by the Treaty. <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDt1kFGUXE1evQfyNEqHcjvcyMKAhAkxRqxmzff1aS6AaEvKgbl1z5AfZOmsV551NRQrdwxesclh7s07Vq37czVCQjOikMQohWDeXH5-x1MIKtxAw7nB4tpEjCJu2k1UjdNBHmBgZLjb04/s1600/Foch.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="511" data-original-width="616" height="165" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDt1kFGUXE1evQfyNEqHcjvcyMKAhAkxRqxmzff1aS6AaEvKgbl1z5AfZOmsV551NRQrdwxesclh7s07Vq37czVCQjOikMQohWDeXH5-x1MIKtxAw7nB4tpEjCJu2k1UjdNBHmBgZLjb04/s200/Foch.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Embittered - Marshall Foch 1919 </span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
A
raging Foch, with his forces in eastern France made his famous statement on
hearing news of the signing <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“this is not
peace, but an armistice for twenty years”. </i>This proved uncannily accurate,
but Foch died a few years before he could say ‘I told you so’. Lloyd George’s
economic adviser Keynes resigned in disgust, and by the end of 1919 had
published his scathing (and influential) book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Economic Consequences of the Peace.</i> Predictably, it was widely
welcomed in Germany. The 20 billion goldmark figure in the Treaty was an
interim and composite figure that summarised any number of complexities and
staging. Of the eventual agreed figure of £6.6bn only around half was ever
paid. France’s greatest economic compensation came from their occupation of the
Saar and Ruhr coalfields. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The German overseas
colonies were distributed, mainly between Britain and France – who also
established their mandates in the Middle East, contributing to the conditions for the
problems that have continued for over 100years. <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlFTnUqH3TGn3h1Z5xMobu4Athd4uI2OaF7k-AvPerpxGln8lIjmfavI1ntfoXzoi0VvpSimHAxZJAlwWtETDrbiRC4qvRUYDZQEp9Kv9Ge_0yRpwSouDqHGxs3Skvpsj_tp20eNlAtLmr/s1600/smyrna.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="522" data-original-width="760" height="219" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlFTnUqH3TGn3h1Z5xMobu4Athd4uI2OaF7k-AvPerpxGln8lIjmfavI1ntfoXzoi0VvpSimHAxZJAlwWtETDrbiRC4qvRUYDZQEp9Kv9Ge_0yRpwSouDqHGxs3Skvpsj_tp20eNlAtLmr/s320/smyrna.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">The tragic destruction of Smyrna (Izmir) 1923 </span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span><br />
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> Perhaps the most tragic outcome
came from Lloyd George’s unstinting support for the Venizelos Greek
expansionism plans. A bitter four years was followed, culminating in the
massacres and destruction of Smyrna (Izmir) in 1923, and the emergence of
modern Turkey. Britain’s loss of prestige in the treaty that followed (see
Appendix) would be a further blow to Lloyd George’s waning popularity.</span><br />
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The Paris Peace
Conference and Treaty of Versailles produced a suitably dramatic and
controversial closure to the First World War. Many mistake and misjudgements
were made, but much was achieved. Considering the complexities and the scale of
the issues, is it really fair to hold the Treaty responsible for an even worse
Second World War and, by implication, all that has followed 1945? Marshall Foch
thought so, but we don’t have to. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Final word to Margaret
Macmillan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span><br /><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Peacemakers of 1919 made mistakes of course. By their offhand treatment of the
non European world, they stirred up resentment for which the West is still
paying today. They took pains over the borders in Europe, even if they did not
draw them to everyone’s satisfaction, but in Africa they carried on the old
practice of handing out territory to suit the imperial powers. In the
Middle East, they threw together peoples, in Iraq most notably, who have still
not managed to cohere into a civil society. If they could have done better,
they certainly could have done much worse. They tried, even cynical old Clemenceau,
to build a better order. They could not foresee the future, and they certainly could
not control it. That was up to their successors.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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(p493 Paris 1919)</div>
seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-13847118394106913472019-06-28T09:11:00.000+01:002019-06-28T09:11:51.539+01:00The Treaty of Versailles 4: Germany Signs<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsS_BlPOBuzeelOTnkafn8ag9pv53XR-FMgJaTBe8R_WUrE0d3elclSSYRBFKZmQLQcobPxeCdR5ENSP6UB6rlVjtp_rC8sPQO0gpXSuYddkd2VD-pzEN-k1HYK-w4Ltw49qfRZRdrzyz4/s1600/250px-William_Orpen_-_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="299" data-original-width="250" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsS_BlPOBuzeelOTnkafn8ag9pv53XR-FMgJaTBe8R_WUrE0d3elclSSYRBFKZmQLQcobPxeCdR5ENSP6UB6rlVjtp_rC8sPQO0gpXSuYddkd2VD-pzEN-k1HYK-w4Ltw49qfRZRdrzyz4/s400/250px-William_Orpen_-_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors.jpg" width="334" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Orpen's famous painting of the signing ceremony in<br />the Hall of Mirrors, Versaillles</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US"><i>Germany, of course, was not a participant
in the Paris Peace Conference. Like the Austrian and Ottoman governments the delegates had to await their summons to Paris to receive the terms of the
treaty. Six months elapsed between the Armistice and their arrival in Paris.
During that time, despite the turbulence and threat of revolution, a German socialist
republic government had functioned with the grudging support of the army, and a
cautious optimism had appeared. After all, their leaders told them, they had
not been defeated in the field; not been invaded, and the authoritative
President Wilson was calling for a ‘just peace’. Further encouragement came in
March, when neutral Netherlands refused to extradite Kaiser Wilhelm to face war
criminal charges.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>Having been faced down over the Kaiser, the
European leaders were more determined to make the Germans pay in terms of
penalties, reparations and lost territory. Lloyd George (and to some extent
British public opinion) was softening a little, but in France the opposite was
the case. Italy was unyielding in demanding full reparations and the lure of extensive
territories that induced them to sign the Treaty of London in 1915 (see Post
7/7/2015). Wilson’s attempts to mediate using his principles and points led to
arguments and a general rise in tension. Punishment, payment and reparation all
had to be resolved and agreed.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The full conference comprised delegates
from 32 countries and met only eight times, always to ratify decisions taken by
the Supreme Council. Not surprisingly this caused some unhappiness,
particularly when that Council was soon reduced from ten to four members <span style="background-color: white;">(See Post 18/6/2019). </span>In contrast, the Council of four met over 150 times, before Orlando’s walk out
reduced it to the Council of Three. All of this took place in an intense period
from March to early May, when the competing demands summarised in the previous
post had to be slotted in alongside consideration of main clauses of the
settlement with Germany.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">By the end of March, the Supreme Council
had ditched, first, the Japanese, and then the Foreign Ministers. They may
have hoped that excluding the aggressive and obstinate Italian Foreign Minister
Sonnino would lower the temperature, and lead to some compromises in the
Italian demands. But <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwmUd-6IbC5O1S_iasuJO9_j-qW5RXQiPBwAvatoZU8uNUd9WgGnxzlPzVmIZV0NoXT3eP0ogiDGtMx0J3HNmT12SRzLiXSwjH3I8Wg1OrqESqTaPBoiLBCzSsVvgiGVxXikp0oOTv99YK/s1600/Orlando.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="300" data-original-width="207" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwmUd-6IbC5O1S_iasuJO9_j-qW5RXQiPBwAvatoZU8uNUd9WgGnxzlPzVmIZV0NoXT3eP0ogiDGtMx0J3HNmT12SRzLiXSwjH3I8Wg1OrqESqTaPBoiLBCzSsVvgiGVxXikp0oOTv99YK/s200/Orlando.jpg" width="138" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Vittorio Orlando. <br />Urbane Italian PM.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Orlando remained under the grip of Sonnino (and even more
strident Italian public opinion). Italy viewed the Treaty of London as a sacred
promise against their commitment, and subsequent losses, in the war. Wilson had
made it clear early on that he regarded it as of little standing alongside his
principle of self determination. Lloyd George and Clemenceau were annoyed and
embarrassed by their predecessors’ loose undertakings that promised Italy much
of Austria, especially its Adriatic coast; large areas of Albania; a slice of
Turkey (sic), numbers of Greek Islands including the Dodecanese; part of North
Africa and even part of Jerusalem. As the weeks passed the relationship between
Wilson and Clemenceau also deteriorated, and they were frequently at odds. The
former was furious that Wilson, in his view, prioritised the League of Nations
over dealing with Germany. He had also upset his own military leader Marshall
Foch by excluding him from the French delegation to the Conference. Foch was
fulminating on the sidelines, calling for measures to enforce the Armistice
terms (in his opinion Germany was not complying) and for an occupation of the
Rhineland.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The two big questions to be addressed were
border changes and the agreement of financial penalties, damages and
reparations. To facilitate these, Germany would first have to accept the blame
for the pre-war machinations that led to war (this would appear as the infamous
Article 31 of the treaty – the guilt clause). She would also have to accept
massive reductions in military and industrial strength, in the interests of
future peace. Clemenceau argued hardest for major border changes in the west,
between France and Germany. The return of Alsace and Lorraine was a given, but
France also wanted Germany to stay to the east of the Rhine, and so all the
industrial areas of the Rhineland and Saar basin were included. There was a
strong case for all the German coal production there to be allocated to France
(and Belgium) as replacement for the mines in the war zone destroyed by the
Germans during their retreat. To Germany’s east, a new Poland required
concession of land in Prussia and Silesia. To provide for Wilson’s promise of
sea access would mean leaving East Prussia as a coastal enclave within Poland.
Again, France was most strongly in favour of harsh measures. Clemenceau backed
Polish negotiator Dmowski’s submission for a ‘greater’ Poland (see Post 22/6/2019). He wanted a
strong Poland at Germany’s eastern border to compensate for the loss of his erstwhile
ally Russia. As with Germany’s west there were important industrial and
agricultural considerations, and everywhere there was the thorny issue of
ethnic and national minorities, exposed by shifting borders.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Assessing how much Germany should pay – and
who should receive how much payment – was an even greater nightmare. Germany
was bankrupt; her people were close to starvation, and much of her industrial
capacity was about to be removed. There was a limit to what <u>could</u> be
paid, regardless of how much <u>should</u> be. On the other hand, the allies
were also bankrupt, or close to it with war debts, and if Germany did not pay,
how could they ask their own taxpayers to do so? Britain had spent by far the
most of the European allies, but France had lost the most, and had the enormous
task of rebuilding a large chunk of the country (as did Belgium on a smaller
scale). The inevitable compromise requirements would satisfy no-one.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Nevertheless, there was good progress
through April, as spring arrived in Paris, lifting peoples’ spirits. Despite
Orlando’s growing unhappiness with lack of progress on Italy’s demands, the
other three felt sufficiently confident to invite the Germans to attend the
conference and receive the terms in early May. Orlando really dug in his heels
on the need for a decision in favour of Italy’s claim to Dalmatia (much of
today’s Croatian coastline, including the ports of Trieste and Fiume).
Occupation of the old Austro-Hungarian port of Fiume had become the emotional
focus of Italian nationalism, inciting large public demonstrations across
Italy. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On 24<sup>th</sup> April, Orlando
walked out of the Supreme Council discussion and returned, with Sonnino, to
Rome. He would return thirteen days later, but the resulting press coverage was
an embarrassment to the remaining three leaders at a most sensitive time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0YvNUsX_ZJTFucU7kT97cxBCnlPeYxX8JnebuD82ekV4WC86mc7vSxn7HovXa_IkLpgiy475S8scPW3Qb1x44tbgXynb_7IBZHSAbtEET88gtYoYYSBLLXPPsjWLl8zjqBXBrk8BIx1F_/s1600/Ulrich+von+Brockdorff-Rantzau.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="238" data-original-width="212" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0YvNUsX_ZJTFucU7kT97cxBCnlPeYxX8JnebuD82ekV4WC86mc7vSxn7HovXa_IkLpgiy475S8scPW3Qb1x44tbgXynb_7IBZHSAbtEET88gtYoYYSBLLXPPsjWLl8zjqBXBrk8BIx1F_/s1600/Ulrich+von+Brockdorff-Rantzau.jpeg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau.<br />Led the first German delegation, but<br />not the second. Remind you of anyone?</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US">Orlando had not re-appeared by the time of
the next drama – the first appearance of the German delegation. On Sunday 4<sup>th</sup>
May, a meeting of the full Conference had rubber stamped the Big three’s terms
for Germany. The summons for Germany was thereby confirmed for 7<sup>th</sup>
May, which just happened to be the fourth anniversary of the sinking of the
Lusitania – one of the most egregious acts of the war. The Germans were to be
allowed two weeks to comment and respond to the terms. The German delegation
was led by Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau, an old school diplomat now Foreign
Minister in Ebert’s Socialist led coalition government (See Post 7/11/2018). He
sat with his colleagues at the central table of the conference room while
Clemenceau stiffly read out the main terms. Awkwardness and delays in
translation meant that it was a little while before the shock and distress of
the Germans became apparent.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Bockhorff-Rantzau stumbled through a
prepared response before he and his colleagues withdrew in disarray. As the
news filtered out, reactions in Germany were predictably of disbelief and
outrage. Wilson in particular was vilified, and went from Germany’s great hope
to despicable traitor overnight. There was political and civil unrest, but
Ebert kept his nerve, and within two weeks produced a comprehensive set of
objections and counter-proposals. The onus was now on the allies to respond.
The first two weeks of June were filled with animated, often bitter,
discussions within the allied governments. Wilson was conciliatory towards
Germany, and was perhaps more alarmed by the hostile reception his League of
Nations Charter was receiving in Washington. Clemenceau and his government <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>remained
hawkish, the bitterness being over how hawkish. Lloyd George came under
pressure to conciliate. Senior advisers including the economist John Maynard
Keynes argued that a stable and peaceful Germany posed less danger than a
starving revolutionary one. In the end only minor concessions were made, the main
one being to grant plebiscites in some areas with large German minorities as in Silesia. In that period Orlando’s government in Rome fell because
of public anger and disenchantment.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiX2OqmeXGaOx2FHJrzut9cj6RG9lDXhuDdgxzizuGd7d9wut6OXSEncxJ4pyTNrdACDXpekzOXiwT2hcryEDfBy3unswo0cE3uOUXgs_nB9DZFDu8AVoGSs_QAESbxpDnUp_ppYv7eWew-/s1600/scapa+flow.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="201" data-original-width="251" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiX2OqmeXGaOx2FHJrzut9cj6RG9lDXhuDdgxzizuGd7d9wut6OXSEncxJ4pyTNrdACDXpekzOXiwT2hcryEDfBy3unswo0cE3uOUXgs_nB9DZFDu8AVoGSs_QAESbxpDnUp_ppYv7eWew-/s1600/scapa+flow.jpeg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Scuppered at Scapa. A grisly <br />end to WW1 at sea</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The Germans were given one week from 16<sup>th</sup>
June to agree to the revised terms, or to face invasion. More uproar followed
in Germany. Ebert’s coalition fell apart. On June 21<sup>st</sup> the German
Fleet anchored in Scapa Flow, where it had been since surrendering to the
British Fleet on 11<sup>th</sup> November, scuttled itself rather than pass
into the ownership of the British. Over 400,000 tons of shipping went to the
depths of the Scottish sea. On 22<sup>nd</sup> June, Ebert cobbled together
another coalition that wearily agreed to the terms with the exception of the
guilt clause. The Paris response was a flat repetition of its previous
ultimatum.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">And so it was, on the morning of 28<sup>th</sup>
June - exactly five years on from Sarajevo -<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>that people crowded into the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles Palace for
the denouement. To the new German Foreign Ministers Johannes Bell and Hermann
Mueller fell the doubtful honour of signing acceptance to one of history’s most
famous documents. The full list of articles is included as an appendix, but the
main clauses pertaining to Germany were:</span><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Acceptance of blame for causation
of the war (Article 231)</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="text-indent: -18pt;">Reparations for the losses and
damage done of 20 Billion Gold marks, an interim figure (worth approx. £2
billion at the time) that would be worked on further by a commission
(ultimately rose to £6.6billions)</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="text-indent: -18pt;">Loss of territory in Germany
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<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-29240348079531370692019-06-24T09:29:00.000+01:002019-06-24T09:29:25.567+01:00The Treaty of Versailles 3: The Middle East and Asia<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJXQjH-wwl__W3VKcXt0kkAPJInhG_W5DQlUd6zw5Z9MJrg5Om4k7fJrZsQXUhBZ2iX1-O-keUwJVK2d1QovtLzRyvCOy0xC8N_56mMzl5cwrlxtAfOUiOadLxS2ofmRkW6FGO3qdK0RoR/s1600/Occupation_of_Constantinople_2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="305" data-original-width="500" height="243" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJXQjH-wwl__W3VKcXt0kkAPJInhG_W5DQlUd6zw5Z9MJrg5Om4k7fJrZsQXUhBZ2iX1-O-keUwJVK2d1QovtLzRyvCOy0xC8N_56mMzl5cwrlxtAfOUiOadLxS2ofmRkW6FGO3qdK0RoR/s400/Occupation_of_Constantinople_2.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">The Occupation of Constantinople 1919</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<i><span lang="EN-US">Constantinople </span><span lang="EN-US">stood as a strategic symbol of the gateway to the near east and
Asia. For centuries it had represented the presence of controlling imperial power
– whether Byzantine or Ottoman. In 1919 it was also a microcosm of the
challenges facing the Peace Conference in dealing with the world beyond Europe.
Leaderless since the surrender of the Ottomans to the British (see Post
8/10/2018), it was nominally under the administration of the British. It was an
unstable cauldron, teeming with defeated soldiers of several nationalities, and
with refugees and dispossessed itinerants. Britain was really only interested
in free passage for its fleets, and was not keen to hold a mandate or
protectorate. The Russians had wanted Constantinople since the times of Peter
the Great as an outlet to the Mediterranean for their Black Sea fleet. They
might even have pressed a spurious claim for control, based on wartime promises made
by Britain and France, but for the regime change and Lenin’s preference for
world revolution over world domination. Constantinople, like the remainder of
the Middle East had to wait for the judgements of Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd
George, and their advisers. </span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">In the interim, the Ottoman naval minister Hussein
Rauf (who had led the armistice negotiations with the British) persuaded the
Sultan Mehmed to take a very compliant approach with the British peace demands.
Other Turks became alarmed by this, seeing the danger of losing control of
their homelands. Chief among them was the war hero, Mustafa Kemal, who would
become known as Ataturk, founder of modern Turkey. In the short term he raised
forces for an independent Turkey, and moved its putative capital away for
Constantinople to the little known city of Ankara in the interior of Asia
Minor. He would prove more than a match for the ambitions of Venizelos in that
region (See previous post).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgelG5OsNS2u_ytYfUhQO-orXePUjby5w0H8JRk874XHodV_HEU4oXzgLF_oztwyU2W0Tc4m7Co5gtdKDRJ7BZjazl_hYfCexns7s1tfAZsOqsi2Gza7xrZw08fgMfV5uWh5ycAjd7FX54U/s1600/Arabia+mandates.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="862" data-original-width="580" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgelG5OsNS2u_ytYfUhQO-orXePUjby5w0H8JRk874XHodV_HEU4oXzgLF_oztwyU2W0Tc4m7Co5gtdKDRJ7BZjazl_hYfCexns7s1tfAZsOqsi2Gza7xrZw08fgMfV5uWh5ycAjd7FX54U/s640/Arabia+mandates.gif" width="428" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Today's Middle East emerged from the chaos of WW1</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<u><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></u>
<u><span lang="EN-US">Middle East. </span></u><br />
<span lang="EN-US">Of the big three leaders at the Conference, Lloyd George had the
greatest ambitions for control and influence in the region. Clemenceau was so
focused on the Treaty for Germany that other parts of the world were of
secondary importance to him (not all of his advisers agreed). Wilson was not
enthusiastic to have America involved much beyond the principles of his
fourteen points, and viewed imperial land grabbing with distaste.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">In the 19<sup>th</sup> century the British
had been content to have a weak Ottoman empire in north Africa and the near
east as a buffer between the other great powers and Britain’s possessions in
Asia. But a crumbling Ottoman Empire was another matter. In the 1880s, the
first signs of Egyptian nationalism prompted the British to invade, to protect
their newly acquired asset, the Suez Canal. Cairo, at the heart of their
‘protectorate’ formed the base of the British army in the Middle East for WW1
(the Egyptian Expeditionary Force). As the war progressed the British gradually
reversed their mishaps at Gallipoli and Kut, and steadily pushed the Ottomans
out of Arabia and Mesopotamia. They made promises to the Arabs and to the Jews
(See Post 30/8/2018) along the way but were considering control of the whole
area from Suez to the ancient provinces of Baghdad and Basra. The first man to
map this out was Sir Mark Sykes, a somewhat eccentric British aristocrat,
diplomat and sometime MP. The French had their own ambitions and their diplomat
Francois Picot was ordered to represent their interests. The ‘Sykes-Picot
Agreement’ of 1916 formed the basis of the carve up between Britain and France,
but there were numerous sub-plots involving the Arabs (led by Hashemite King
Hussein); the Jews (led by Zionist Chaim Weizmann); the Italians and the
Russians. By the time the partition of the Ottoman Empire came to be discussed
at the Peace Conference some of the irreconcilable promises were exposed.
Clemenceau’s focus on Europe worked in favour of Britain. He was content to
concede Mosul to them, provided France kept Syria and Lebanon. Britain kept
control of Jordan and Palestine, and now added to Province of Mosul to those of
Baghdad and Basra, creating a new, oil rich nation, Iraq.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">All this left only Persia (Iran) and
Afghanistan between the middle east and India.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>With civil war in Russia, the ‘great game’ of the 19<sup>th</sup>
Century between Russia and Britain for control of that region, had swung back
to England – for now</span>.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5U-MfkzR7qt0mfoh1uFsorX7xB1iUqU6IQ9z3tDqxnwa4Yr9lqLIsVMMhfIxFAZzOdSzdUcvPJ6MA83PCiji54D1kFUHjKUywlcJYTpMEi2KS1uksssesF78BpW0pEjW6g1saYrmqpNnI/s1600/tsingtao.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="210" data-original-width="241" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5U-MfkzR7qt0mfoh1uFsorX7xB1iUqU6IQ9z3tDqxnwa4Yr9lqLIsVMMhfIxFAZzOdSzdUcvPJ6MA83PCiji54D1kFUHjKUywlcJYTpMEi2KS1uksssesF78BpW0pEjW6g1saYrmqpNnI/s1600/tsingtao.jpeg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Tsingtao (now Qingdao), Shandong peninsula.<br /> German colony until 1914, then occupied by<br />the Japanese.<br /></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<u><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></u>
<u><span lang="EN-US">China.</span></u><span lang="EN-US"> The
ancient and closed eras of Chinese civilization, in the centuries since
Marco Polo, had been disturbed by European interference (opium wars, Boxer rebellion, German
occupation of Tsingtao) and more recently by aggressive Japanese expansion on
to the Chinese mainland (in Korea, Manchuria and the Shandong peninsula,
including Tsingtao). Japan was taking its place at the Conference as an ally,
and was expecting favourable treatment of its further claims on China. However,
China at that time was undergoing great change and inner turmoil (that would
last for decades). In 1917, previously neutral China had declared war on
Germany. This was clever tactical move to forestall further Japanese demands on
their territory, set out in a 21 points memorandum. In an even more creative
move, China proposed to send ‘labourers not soldiers’ to support the war effort
at the front. This made a significant contribution in 1918, when 140,000
Chinese laboured behind the allied lines of the Western Front, freeing up
soldiers for front line action. Finding a pragmatic compromise between
opponents China and Japan, both of them wartime allies, put a great strain on
the big three – Wilson almost had a breakdown. When the decisions came down
broadly in favour of Japan, the reaction from China was extreme. Demonstrations
in Tiananmen Square were followed by violence and descent into civil war.
Neither were the Japanese fully mollified. Their bitterness over the way they
had been treated no doubt contributed to the rise of anti-Western Japanese
militarism during the 1920s.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></u>
<u><span lang="EN-US">India.</span></u><span lang="EN-US">
Britain was by now facing increasing turbulence from nationalism in India.
Gandhi had arrived from South Africa during the war and was transforming the
Indian National Congress to a mass movement. India’s large muslim population was restless and their reaction to the dismantling of the Sultan’s
empire was unpredictable – the Amritsar massacre of 1919 resulted from
inter-religious tensions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Lloyd George may have been winning
arguments to enhance Britain’s influence in the world, but resistance in the
Dominions and Colonies was increasing, and an exhausted and economically
weakened Britain would struggle to retain its power. The Dominions, particularly
the Australians, New Zealanders and Canadians, having contributed so much to
the war effort were no longer willing to follow unquestioningly the decisions taken
in London. They had shocked Lloyd George with their demands for strong representation
at the Peace Conference, and the abrasive Australian Prime Minister, Billy
Hughes, enjoyed sparring with the Big Three, much to Wilson’s annoyance. He
demanded New Guinea and a string of formerly German Pacific islands be voted to
Australian control, and his NZ counterpart demanded the same of Samoa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">In today’s management speak, there were
many wicked problems lurking in the agenda of the Paris Peace Conference. And
yet the headline event and outcome would have to be the signing of the Treaty
by Germany, with all the complexities and implications that it would hold.
Small wonder that many of the big decisions had to be shelved for further work and
later treaties – some successful, some disastrous. Settling with Germany was core
business.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-36609289764843246412019-06-22T11:31:00.000+01:002019-06-22T11:31:51.391+01:00The Treaty of Versailles 2: Addressing the chaos in Europe<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQ0ojyXP17VdqIzi342rbx7qMkDy9nLLir1SQe3SYC0yP8NZuA3nyHe8btOFMUeKm48xTU4iGB4G8ZDdLteFe5qvXkXj-7gfQQJnIM_ajDK0Ogm37jI0A2O3gyBu1vD8MhyphenhyphenMj-ng3rMpwL/s1600/Treaty+of+Versailles.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="389" data-original-width="647" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQ0ojyXP17VdqIzi342rbx7qMkDy9nLLir1SQe3SYC0yP8NZuA3nyHe8btOFMUeKm48xTU4iGB4G8ZDdLteFe5qvXkXj-7gfQQJnIM_ajDK0Ogm37jI0A2O3gyBu1vD8MhyphenhyphenMj-ng3rMpwL/s400/Treaty+of+Versailles.gif" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">A new Europe was emerging at the Peace Conference</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US"><i>It had been Wilson’s intention to stay in
Paris only for a pre-Conference before the main event started in late January 1919.
Thereafter<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>he planned to leave America’s
plans in the hands of his deputy, and well known political fixer, ‘Colonel’
Edward House. However, as the enormity of the tasks became apparent – the
pre-conference barely amounted to a starter for ten – Wilson resolved to stay
right through until the signing of the treaty with Germany. Early on Wilson
accepted House’s proposal to meet Lloyd George and Clemenceau’s concerns about
his fourteen points by adding the question of penalties for Germany and
removing the point about freedom of the seas. Otherwise the negotiations and
horse-trading did not get into full swing until March, after Wilson’s return
from a two weeks visit home to deal with Congress anxieties about the League of
Nations.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>The Supreme Council was hardly starting
with a clean sheet. Four of the world’s six great empires – Germany,
Austria-Hungary, Russian and the Ottomans – were in chaos. The other two, Great
Britain and France, were determined to preserve and increase their own
influence, despite being exhausted and deeply in debt. Borders and government
were already being fought over in what would become Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia,
the Baltic States, Greece and Turkey. All of them were vulnerable in one way or
another to the civil war that was starting to play out in Russia. Wilson’s
principle of self-determination was clearly going to be difficult to apply consistently
to victors and vanquished. It was a reluctance to engage with these issues that
contributed to the shrinking down of the Supreme Council from ten to three
members.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>The Japanese had been in an uncomfortable
position from the outset. Proposed by Britain as members on the basis of
wartime promises for naval support, they were accepted only grudgingly by the
others. In the racially bigoted views of the time they were viewed as an
inferior nation of ‘yellow peoples’, and their lead delegate was not a prime
minister, but a diplomat – albeit an eminent one, Crown Prince Suonji. Awkward
in meetings, the Japanese pressed hard for their own issues but showed little
interest in the main agenda. One of their points was for inclusion of a racial
equality clause in the League Charter. This would cause Wilson to make a number
of concessions, and no little embarrassment. Nonetheless, by April the Japanese
had been excluded from the Council. The loss of the Italian membership was a
more serious matter (see Part 4) but was also born out of intransigence and
self interest.<o:p></o:p></i></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><i><br /></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">All across the land mass of Europe and Asia
hot spots of instability were resulting from the rise of nationalism amongst crumbling empires; nascent revolutions and religious divisions among
impoverished people. The large dominions of the British Empire were flexing
their newly found political muscle. In the USA a concerned Congress scrutinised
Wilson’s activities skeptically. South America, held unofficially in the sway
of the USA’s Monroe doctrine (see Post 9/03/2017) was perhaps the only
continent to escape interference. Africa was treated dismissively, as always,
and Germany’s previous colonies there were soon and easily divided up between
Britain, France and Italy. Africa was allowed no dreams of nationalism, only
imperialism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">A brief review of nation state issues
across Europe:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></u>
<span lang="EN-US"><u>The Balkans.</u> </span><span lang="EN-US">The powder keg that detonated WW1 was always going to be a challenge
for Wilson’s self-determination principle. Muslim versus Christian religion
complications (the latter divided between catholic, protestant and orthodox)
added to the ongoing ethnic tensions. A patchwork of aspiring nations would
comprise a land of south slavs – Jugo Slavia - initially the Kingdom of Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia. This much was a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">fait accomplit</i>, but borders, influence
and resources were another. Serbia, as the strongest to emerge from the pre-war
Balkan Wars, assumed leadership and insisted on Belgrade as the capital. To the
west, Austria was eviscerated, but Italy had designs on large sections of the
Slovenian and Croatian Adriatic coasts, particularly the ports of Trieste and
Fiume. Bosnia Herzogovina, Montenegro and Kosovo comprised an unhappy and suspicious
group of fellow slav states to the south. Further south from them Albania,
under pressure from all sides, was struggling to survive as an independent
nation. Despite all of these issues, the biggest headache for the conference
would come from setting Yugoslavia’s northern border with the newly independent
Hungary. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
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<u><span lang="EN-US">Czechoslovakia. </span></u><span lang="EN-US">Another <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">de facto </i>new slav
state was awaiting clarification on its future. Previous posts described the
campaigns of Masaryk and Benes and the heroics of the Czech Legion (see Posts
11/7/2017 and 31/5/2018). As the conference began Benes and Masaryk were
ensconced in Paris, confidently awaiting ratification of their proposals. But,
again, there were questions to be resolved about borders and the treatment of
ethnic groups within them. A sizeable German minority lived in a region
later to be notorious as the Sudetenland (cue Munich 1938) but also there were disputed borders with
the new states of Poland and Hungary.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhv-ij-ULgBLc-IVgHfyAho_dBIglGXBL2-kZjqZrzPqfNmjcDAPEGILXmmZbQVbP0ZLcZCjyhxLm-pxKsrIk0TI5NH2AahlxKRbjnp9mF74QOxuvOUvgY_kYyouJgIahy0dfQ-m7E0Rt3/s1600/Bela+Kun.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="259" data-original-width="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhv-ij-ULgBLc-IVgHfyAho_dBIglGXBL2-kZjqZrzPqfNmjcDAPEGILXmmZbQVbP0ZLcZCjyhxLm-pxKsrIk0TI5NH2AahlxKRbjnp9mF74QOxuvOUvgY_kYyouJgIahy0dfQ-m7E0Rt3/s1600/Bela+Kun.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Bela Kun - Communist<br />Revolutionary who seized<br />power in Hungary in 1919</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<u><span lang="EN-US">Hungary</span></u><span lang="EN-US">. As
a defeated nation, Hungary was in a weaker position, but tried to paint itself
as a new liberal democracy, freed from the shackles of Austria’s Habsburgs. Its
difficulty lay in its several substantial ethnic minority groups – Slovaks,
Rumanians and Slavs – that had been badly treated<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> in the past </span>by the ruling Magyars, and all these new
neighbours wanted their slice of Hungarian territory. The main disputes were
over Transylvania (a large mountain region viewed as its own by Rumania) and
the Banat. The latter was an area on the lower Danube coveted by 'Yugoslavia', and important for trade and communications. A further small area of land in
Carinthia was the cause of violent struggles between Czechoslovaks and
Hungarians. Matters became a whole lot more alarming for the conference in late
March, when an unknown communist, Bela Kun, seized power with a coup in
Budapest, bringing Bolshevism to the heart of Europe. The Supreme Council
dispatched representatives to Budapest to argue for interim neutral zones, and
possibly to discover whether Kun might be a conduit to negotiating with Lenin.
Italy proposed that the jugoslavs should advance into the Banat (hoping this
would help compensate their own demands for Trieste and Fiume) and the French military
commander in the region authorised it. The Rumanians began their moves into
Transylvania, and the ‘peace’ conference found itself struggling to prevent an
all out war. Stability of a sort did not return until some months after the
Treaty in June.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvp7cb7EOjgfjO1upXIrCMOT6qWPUlp7pwI4n8SbrI0s03lIAc7SCdD0TlSjOpsSnpJSPsVuxyMSwg_MRhyphenhyphenVgbCGBHkvFcKn4a4ns9lOcPsdMo-SJHEADYcToQyvnN8FZQgTuTpAqzyM5L/s1600/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="792" data-original-width="630" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvp7cb7EOjgfjO1upXIrCMOT6qWPUlp7pwI4n8SbrI0s03lIAc7SCdD0TlSjOpsSnpJSPsVuxyMSwg_MRhyphenhyphenVgbCGBHkvFcKn4a4ns9lOcPsdMo-SJHEADYcToQyvnN8FZQgTuTpAqzyM5L/s200/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski.png" width="158" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Ignacy Paderewski.<br />First Polish PM after<br />Versailles</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<u><span lang="EN-US">Poland.</span></u><span lang="EN-US"> An
independent Poland was included as the thirteenth of Wilson’s Fourteen Points,
but once again borders and the rights of ethnic minority groups created
tensions and complexity. As with Hungary, definitive borders would not be
agreed until long after the Treaty on 29<sup>th</sup> June, and poor Poland
would hold on to them for only twenty years. The conference’s expert panel on
Poland held “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">more meetings than any other
at the conference*”</i>. The borders of a new Poland were not in any way
defined, although Wilson’s Point 13 had required it to have access to the sea –
a difficult promise to keep. This laid the path for the ‘Danzig Corridor' (cue
Hitler 1939). Macmillan describes the regions as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“hundreds of miles from Paris… a protean world of shifting allegiances,
civil wars, refugees and bandit groups”.</i> Clemenceau was in favour of a
strong Poland (to replace Russia as an ally to Germany’s east). Two strong
Polish characters vied with each other for control of the negotiations process.
In Paris, the Polish national committee was headed by Roman Dmovski, an
ambitious moderniser who wanted to take as much land for Poland as possible. In
Warsaw a government was being organised by Josef Pilsudski, military leader of
a new but effective Polish Legion. A remarkable man, Pilsudski was a romantic
nationalist, willing to settle for less territory if it delivered a
pre-partition 18<sup>th</sup> century Poland. Dmovski and Pilsudski detested
each other, and the Allies could not see a way to a compromise. Then an
inspired move brought the world’s most famous Pole to the table to bang heads
together. Ignace Paderewski was the greatest pianist of the era, and had lived
(along with four million other Poles) as an immigrant in the USA for some
years. He was a distant and powerful supporter of Polish independence (some
felt it was his private performances at the White house that nudged Wilson towards
his point 13). Paderewski travelled from New York to Poznan and Warsaw at the end of 1918. He received rapturous welcomes and generally revived the passion for
Polish nationalism, manifested as the "Greater Poland Uprising". He travelled on to Paris to join Dmovski. In a series of
events beyond the scope of this blog, Poland emerged with the mixed backing of
the Allies and remnants of the German army from the old eastern front. They
were contracted as mercenaries – the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Freikorps</i>
– to keep the Red Army Bolsheviks at bay to the east. It was the Red threat
that convinced the Allies to send more funds and supplies to Poland, even
though they had no control over events.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><u>Baltic States.</u> </span><span lang="EN-US">On a line running due north from Lemberg (Lviv today) in Ukraine almost to St. Petersburg, all territory to the west – the Polish salient and
Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia had been lost by Russia in the Brest- Litovsk
treaty (See Post 22/1/2018). The three Baltic states were caught between newly
awakened nationalism and the uncertainties of the Russian civil war. As with
Poland, neither the Red nor the White Russian factions wanted to see their
independence. The most northerly state, Finland, was a different case. Lenin
had approved Finland’s independence early in 1918 but fighting continued,
involving British, Finnish German and Russian troops, as the uncertainties over
the control of Archangel continued (See Post 31/5/2018).<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><u>Greece.</u> </span><span lang="EN-US">At
the other end of Europe Greece, a late and ambivalent entrant to WW1, was becoming the
most influential country in its region. This was entirely down to the character
and persuasiveness of Eleftherios Venizelos, now Prime Minister again
during his long running feud with the Germanophile King Constantine (See Post
18/8/2017). Venizelos proved to be one of the most impressive, charismatic
statesmen at the conference. He won over the Big Three – Lloyd George in
particular was entranced by his rhetoric – to his case for a greater Greece
based on its glorious history and some dubious statistics about the size of Greek
minorities in surrounding countries **. He wanted territory from Albania,
Thrace, Macedonia and Bulgaria, and return of all of the Greek islands. But his
main ambitions were to the east – Turkey and Asia Minor. Lloyd George’s unstinting
support for the Venizelos vision would have tragic consequences that played out
over the next four years.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">* </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Margaret Macmillan. Paris 1919 (2003) p207<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">**</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> The absence of any reliable population demographics proved to be a
useful tactic used by all the supplicant nations to some degree.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-30938159136058412032019-06-18T09:56:00.002+01:002019-06-18T09:57:02.656+01:00The Treaty of Versailles 1: The Paris Peace Conference begins.<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 3.9pt;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqH-CmWxourP-IW2Sdmd5UzQMXU0ppanGFNXpHZHhqY_n7Kv7_fBsskcI_3aDloXzqLeujonxCKIaPNsKzXzPFdJs0Jc3t3yPq_gwiwwo1XxlpU-t455fQkla6hzTmCLC2Kl2iUuFmdslo/s1600/Big+Four.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="198" data-original-width="256" height="246" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqH-CmWxourP-IW2Sdmd5UzQMXU0ppanGFNXpHZHhqY_n7Kv7_fBsskcI_3aDloXzqLeujonxCKIaPNsKzXzPFdJs0Jc3t3yPq_gwiwwo1XxlpU-t455fQkla6hzTmCLC2Kl2iUuFmdslo/s320/Big+Four.jpeg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">The Big Four - L to R Lloyd George, Orlando, <br />Clemenceau and Wilson</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 12pt;">World War One comprised four years
of military devastation bookended by diplomatic incidents and periods of
frenetic political and diplomatic activity. The shots fired in Sarajevo on 28</span><sup style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">th</sup><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 12pt;">
June 1914 (see Post 6/11/2014) led to the July crisis which, after 37 days
ended in failure and full scale war (Post 8/11/2014). The consequences were
soon and obviously apparent. </span></i><br />
<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 12pt;">The military armistice of November 1918 (Post
11/11/2018) started a process of intense and even more complex diplomacy and
politics. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 culminated (although did not end)
with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors on 28</span><sup style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">th</sup><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 12pt;">
June 1919 – five years to the day since the Sarajevo assassinations. The Treaty
followed a longer period of negotiations and its outcomes played out over a
much longer time than the 37 days of 1914.</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><i>Versailles has been bitterly
criticised over the years, particularly by those watching solely through
history’s retrospectoscope. The treaty, rather than any individual or country,
is popularly held responsible for an even worse world war twenty years later.
Of course the reality is different, and more nuanced.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><i>John Buchan’s writings have
influenced much of the detail in this blog, but he wrote in much less detail
about the Paris Peace Conference that produced the treaty. Years later he did
contribute to its re-appraisal, expressing the view that future generations
would look more kindly on its outcomes. I’m not sure we have, but I feel we
should. Margaret Macmillan’s magnificent sweep of the Conference and its
context – Peacemakers* - sets out how wide and complex were the challenges they
faced. The Peacemakers had to square a large number of circles at a time of
major instability and international bankruptcy. The guns may have fallen silent
on the Western Front on 11<sup>th</sup> November, but in eastern Europe, Russia
and the near east any number of revolutionary, religious or nationalist
conflicts continued. Considering the toxic mess made of Brexit by today’s
political negotiators – a peaceful and straightforward task according to its
promoters – I would say they achieved a great deal in Paris in 1919. To hold
the Treaty entirely culpable for WW2 absolves all those involved in the ensuing
twenty years of any responsibility. It is akin to holding Edward Heath entirely
responsible for the mess of Brexit. I don’t believe that even Nigel Farage has
done that yet.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><i>Returning to the Peace Conference,
it ran for over one year from January 1919 and was unprecedented in its scope.
The ‘balance of power’ had mostly preserved peace among the great powers for a
century (the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 being the main exception). Most
comparable had been the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15 when Europe was
stabilised after the Napoleonic Wars. However, as Buchan summarised “…</i>in 1814 the victors held most of Europe and
had armies ready and willing to carry out their commands…. a little group of
grandees met in dignified seclusion <i>(to deliberate and produce</i>) … the Treaty of Paris with 120 Articles
signed by seventeen delegates.<i>” In 1919 however, “</i>the victorious armies were so weary that the further use of force was
almost unthinkable… they (deliberated)… under
the arc lamp of suspicious popular opinion” and eventually there were
seventy signatories to the 441 Articles of the Treaty of Versailles"<i>.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><i>The Paris Peace Conference faced a
mountainous task.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Amidst mounting excitement and
expectations, the major and minor players of the Conference (and the world’s
media) gathered in Paris in the first days of 1919. Those compiling the agenda,
and the sequencing of events, had to cover three broad areas: territorial
adjustments; reparations and damage penalties, and arrangements for future
world peace. At the core of the business was the signing of peace terms by
Germany, but the ripples from that process affected most of the world. The most
influential players decreased in number over the course of the conference.
Initially a Supreme Council of ten members was drawn from the five allied
victorious countries – France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan and the USA – who
fielded their Prime Ministers and Foreign Ministers. By April, the Japanese
were dropped from the Council, and the four leaders (Clemenceau, Lloyd George,
Orlando and Wilson) became the big four, deciding all the main questions. By
the end of April the Italians, incensed by their treatment, had walked out,
leaving the triumvirate of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson to carry the
historical can for their judgements.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Supreme Council sat above a
large assembly of committees, sub-groups and expert groups, distilling
information, attempting to reconcile opposing views and creating compromise
suggestions, but all routes led to the big four prime minsters. They met together on hundreds
of occasions and, in different ways, none of them ever fully recovered from the
strain of the process. They were different personalities, and spending so
much time together led to numerous, often sharp, disagreements despite the like
and respect they had for each other. Wilson arrived in Europe in December 1918,
to tumultuous welcomes in places he visited, most notably in Paris itself.
Except for one short period in February 1919 he was to stay in Europe for more
than six months – an unprecedented absence for a US President, and it did him
no favours back home. However, for the Paris conference, he began as its hero,
occupying the high moral ground of his famous fourteen points (See Post 13/1/2018)
with their principles of justice, self-determination of peoples and future
world peace. His crown’s jewel was to be the Charter for the League of Nations,
and he would compromise in other important areas to achieve it. <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh15QYaiYi3NsFwrtIan8ARh2IsljOYPKCK7AEFoYdnDvaEvO-FEuNJZevgmGYAUS_l3UYMHIKzCsMJZcWqdkHyKeVjfyMt9SLXWHO8xH-G6-dcWJrzY2WSuQ8Mjuco4BJI7E1zHWrd13Xm/s1600/vive+Wilson.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="819" data-original-width="1024" height="255" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh15QYaiYi3NsFwrtIan8ARh2IsljOYPKCK7AEFoYdnDvaEvO-FEuNJZevgmGYAUS_l3UYMHIKzCsMJZcWqdkHyKeVjfyMt9SLXWHO8xH-G6-dcWJrzY2WSuQ8Mjuco4BJI7E1zHWrd13Xm/s320/vive+Wilson.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Woodrow Wilson's tumultuous reception in <br />Paris. He arrived as a hero, bearing the hopes<br />of millions but left under a cloud.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Whereas Lloyd
George and Clemenceau were more driven by the requirements of the 11<sup>th</sup>
November Armistice, and the need to nullify any future German military threat.
Lloyd George was, perhaps, less convinced of this need (versus the broader
‘imperial’ opportunities) than Clemenceau. However, he had recently won a snap
general election at home when he campaigned on a popular message of squeezing
Germany ‘until the pips squeak’ and the execution of the Kaiser. Clemenceau had
spent his whole political life obsessing about threat to France from Germany
and the enduring injustice of the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. Rumour had it
that he requested for his burial to be in the upright position, facing Germany. France had
lost proportionately more than any other belligerent country, including a
quarter of its male population aged 18-30. Small wonder French public opinion
was against showing any magnanimity to Germany. Speaking ahead of the
conference he said “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yes we have won the
war and not without difficulty; and now we are going to have to win the peace
and that will perhaps be even more difficult</i>” (Foch would angrily, and
famously, denounce him six months later for losing the peace).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The big four made all significant
decisions but many other important figures from world history influenced them – John Maynard Keynes, Venizelos, TE Lawrence and Prince Feisal, Ataturk and Lenin
to name but a few. Indeed, Lenin’s Bolshevik revolution and the resultant chaos
in Russia and Eastern Europe comprise an ever-absent ‘elephant’ in the
conference rooms throughout. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Peace Conference did not end
with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, although the three leaders
returned home afterwards. Their foreign ministers stayed on in Paris,
struggling with the details until the following January, and the process was
not completed until the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The next part will look at the
requests, claims and counter-claims made by participant nations, and how the
Supreme Council attempted to deal with them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 12.0pt;">*</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 10.0pt;">full title
“Peacemakers. Six months that changed the world. The Paris Peace Conference of
1919 and its attempt to end war</span><!--EndFragment-->
seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-32690012454343531102018-11-26T15:14:00.001+00:002018-11-26T15:14:10.689+00:00Aftermath and afterthoughts 2 - The Grim Reaper
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFzPyj7W5vvAvSy6_LyM9hIWfF_6rBRdyC9SRYnl6Poj0MtIM7eyZ_-uPZ68xXyblWWyJBs6YDPdDdsAB6oMr-dvvIRoHzn945osAd2ppQyt4CpNLyKHATlf1ezLJrAVu3B8G2tZYOWMEb/s1600/Spanish+Flu+1.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="196" data-original-width="257" height="305" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFzPyj7W5vvAvSy6_LyM9hIWfF_6rBRdyC9SRYnl6Poj0MtIM7eyZ_-uPZ68xXyblWWyJBs6YDPdDdsAB6oMr-dvvIRoHzn945osAd2ppQyt4CpNLyKHATlf1ezLJrAVu3B8G2tZYOWMEb/s400/Spanish+Flu+1.jpeg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>In today’s world, with blanket media
coverage and social networking, bad news travels faster than ever and it seems as if
the dangers of our existence are constantly increasing. In fact, in terms of
armed conflicts, the world is safer than ever before. Yuval Harari’s
exceptional book Homo Deus provides plentiful
figures in support of this – our challenges today are not, by and large, how
mankind can survive wars. </i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>But 1918? How would social media have dealt with a
year that, for global mortality was the worst in history. Not only was
it the year of terminal carnage in WW1, but it brought the Spanish Flu
pandemic. For the warring nations the numbers dying were no more than a ghastly
postscript to the four years of death and suffering. For non-combatant nations the
1918 flu pandemic was the worst event in their history. High profile epidemics
of recent years such as SARS, AIDS, Ebola, Bird Flu barely register on the
scale of the Spanish Flu. Accurate figures are impossible, but broad figures
record that half a billion people - 1 in 3 of the world’s population - suffered
from the deadly new H1N1 strain of the flu virus. The 50-100 million deaths
worldwide exceeded deaths in both world wars – (probably) combined. Only the
Black Death could lay claim to comparable effects on a global (and numerically
much smaller) population.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>The only redeeming statistic was the
brevity of the pandemic. The first cases were reported in early 1918, with the
last in early 1920, and within that relatively short time the majority of the
deaths occurred in the weeks between mid-September and mid-December 1918. By comparison the
Black Death took four years to afflict all of Eurasia.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>So how and why was the Spanish Flu so virulent?</i></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Influenza and its periodic epidemics
had been known about for centuries before the era of virology (1933 saw discovery of the influenza virus), and the 1918
version. When a disease, such as the flu or smallpox is present continuously in
relatively small numbers in communities it is referred to as endemic. Occasional waves of high numbers that affect communities and populations are epidemics,
and when an epidemic goes global it becomes a pandemic. In the case of influenza 'Flu', we now know that major epidemics occur when there is a significant
mutational change in the virus. This is a process termed antigenic ‘shift’, as opposed
to the more gradual antigenic ‘drift’ that happens year on year, enabling the
population to develop resistance to its worst effects. With antigenic shift,
the flu virus is able to sweep through the host defences, killing the most
vulnerable victims, usually by pneumonia or just overwhelming sepsis. This, of
course, is what happened in spades with the Spanish Flu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">It would be wrong to apportion any
responsibility for the disaster to Spain. The mutant virus probably originated
in the Far East, but is generally reckoned to have started its trail of
destruction from military camps in the USA in 1917 (Kansas seemingly the main
suspect), crossing the Atlantic in troop carrying ships, and landing in Europe
at the French ports.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The ideal conditions for rapid
spread of an epidemic existed across the theatres of war, particularly the
Western Front. These included increased mobility of populations; densely packed
communities of soldiers and refugees; people malnourished and physically and
mentally weakened by four years of war. Medical services, already overwhelmed,
had little with which they could treat people, and public health advice
was virtually non-existent. In fact, press censorship tended to suppress
information about the early phases of the epidemic and its effects on the
suffering masses at the front. It was only when King Alfonso of neutral Spain
became a prominent victim that newspaper reports created the soubriquet
‘Spanish Flu’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Can we assess its impact on the
outcome of the war? Probably marginal. There were two waves of the flu amongst
the troops on the Western Front. The first wave in the summer months of 1918 was
a milder version*. Men were ill for 7-10 days then generally ready to resume
action. Mortality was low, but higher amongst the poorly nourished Germans. In
military terms it was one more factor in the tipping of the balance against the
Germans after the efforts of their final offensives. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Behind the lines, and in
the two months after the Armistice, the impact of the flu was much greater. As
the disease spread around via the ports of the world the impact on civilian
populations was enormous. Inevitably the weakest individuals (and populations,
Germany, Austria-Hungary (RIP) and eastern Europe) were hardest hit, although
paradoxically there was also a peak in those usually most resistant – young
adults. The paradox was that their mode of death, a fulminating bloody
pneumonia, was created by the toxins (cytokines storm) from the stronger immune
defence they were able to put up.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Millions of poignant individual
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survived through four years of war, only to die of flu in days, sometimes hours
after its end. Men taken ill on the ferry home across the channel; men recovering
in military hospitals taken as the flu swept through the area; families becoming
victims just as their men arrived home. My own grandmother died of flu on
Armistice day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Japan - 30 million cases - 'only'<br />200,000 deaths</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Finally, as if the Grim Reaper was
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lower than surrounding countries, but there were still over 200,000 deaths.
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10-20% means that up to 5% of the world’s population died, dwarfing the 1.1%
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">And yet, from a European and North
American the Spanish Flu epidemic will always be seen as that final cruel blow
inflicted on a world that had already suffered enough. Such is the scarring
legacy of the First World War. I have attempted to be there in spirit these past
four years, but we are all lucky not to have been there.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-22293056720172431802018-11-18T18:03:00.000+00:002018-11-18T18:03:49.899+00:00Aftermath and afterthoughts 1 - The Great War?
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<!--StartFragment-->
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-457bOT1U7_2mZ06Oo75SbEMMK9WrpEyiuonYVP52yOD5uD6eVwXmbi9yXBxDY9orJfJkJIb28Naniybl7UpM4JkqyVYMVVg-23DI6P_8fFUApwPsbIdfYZMwdZjljhSpl2eaUDiPZxV4/s1600/WW1.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="194" data-original-width="259" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-457bOT1U7_2mZ06Oo75SbEMMK9WrpEyiuonYVP52yOD5uD6eVwXmbi9yXBxDY9orJfJkJIb28Naniybl7UpM4JkqyVYMVVg-23DI6P_8fFUApwPsbIdfYZMwdZjljhSpl2eaUDiPZxV4/s320/WW1.jpeg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<i>To paraphrase Ricky Gervais - it wasn't a
great war, it wasn't even ok. The First World War was a disaster for all nations
concerned, in terms of people, militarily, economically and materially. That
one side emerged as ‘victors’ and the other ‘vanquished’ cannot obscure the fact
that all major combatant nations emerged from the war in a far worse state than
they had entered it (with the possible exception of the USA). The short lived
euphoria at the cessation of combat was followed by years of difficulty until
an even more grotesque global conflict began in 1939 – fulfilling with uncanny
accuracy Foch’s angry denouncement of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty: that it
was not peace, but an armistice for 20 years.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>The four years of the centenary has given us all opportunities to learn and reflect and perhaps modify our views. The war was a disaster for all concerned, but was it as avoidable,
unnecessary and futile as the prevailing pre-centenary view held it to be?<o:p></o:p></i></div>
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<i>The cliché is that WW2 was a ‘just’ war
whereas, WW1 was unnecessary – the monarchs of Europe and the Ottomans sending
their peoples to slaughter for preservation of their Empires.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>It is entirely possible that different
short term decisions during the July crisis of 1914 would have prevented the
war – and without the first, would there have been a second twenty years later? Of course that is mere speculation, since both undoubtedly <u>did </u>occur, but it’s
speculation that has been continuing for 100 years now. Or would war have occurred at some point even if
the 1914-1918 conflict had been avoided?</i><o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--StartFragment-->
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1 Was WW1 preventable?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In my unequivocal view, yes – perhaps
(sic). There are short and longer term considerations. The war was
unquestionably born out of the ambitions of imperialism resisting the forces of
revolution and nationalism. The secular trends from the mid 19<sup>th</sup>
century onwards made it almost inevitable that the balance of power policies of
the empires of Europe – Russia, France, Great Britain, Austria-Hungary and
Germany – would tip over into conflict. The questions were - When? And to what
extent? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Germany was striving to grow and extend
influence. Her industrial economy and military development was outpacing all
the other main players, especially France, and she was frustrated at her lack
of overseas colonies compared to the rivals. Only in German East Africa did she
have great natural resources to draw on. The other empires were seeking, even
struggling, to retain what they had. Britain’s maintenance of sea power was the
only way to keep hold of her global empire, hence the damaging arms race to maintain
superiority in Dreadnoughts over Germany. Austria Hungary was dysfunctional and
being weakened by nationalistic ambitions, particularly in the Balkans. Russia
was at risk of revolution – the Duma (Russian parliament) was a concession made
by the Tsar after the first serious revolt in 1905. The other participant, the
Ottoman Empire, had been in trouble for more than 100 years, with powder kegs
ready to explode in many areas from the Balkans to the Middle East. So if war
had been averted in 1914 – as it had been in the Agadir crisis of 1911, or in the
first Balkan War of 1912 – was it nevertheless inevitable within a few years?<span style="font-size: x-small;">(1)</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Barbara Tuchman’s superb book, The Proud Tower,
sets out the major social and political changes in the late 19<sup>th</sup> and
early 20<sup>th</sup> century, and how they impacted on the major players of
WW1. In Britain, although it had been relatively unaffected by the spirit of
revolution that swept across Europe and the world in 1848, there was a
significant shift in the Edwardian years from imperialism and patrician culture
to reform, represented strongly by Asquith’s liberal reforming government.
France was a divided and unhappy nation, suffering from the after effects of
the loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany in 1870 and the divisive effects of
the extraordinary Dreyfus affair. Germany’s rise and rise as a military power
was fuelled by the intensive growth of her industrial base – greater than
Britain, France and Italy combined at the outbreak of war. When the newly
installed Kaiser Wilhelm decided to dispense with the services of Bismarck in
1890, the balance of power policy lost its most skilful and cunning proponent,
and Germany’s foreign policy became more erratic and expansionist. For the
USA, Tuchman describes the ‘end of a dream’ with the need to move from
insulation from world politics (making a comeback today?) to addressing
international issues including Spain, and control of the Panama Canal. Russia,
with no middle class to explore the middle ground, teetered – more than any
country - between the Tsar’s absolutism and revolution. Across the world
movements of socialism, Marxism and anarchy were creating tremendous
instability.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">So, when the assassination of Franz
Ferdinand provoked the July crisis of 1914, the risk of regional war was very
high, and of a global conflict the risk was significant(<span style="font-size: x-small;">2)</span>. Of the diplomatic, political
and popular efforts to avoid (or provoke) war, several could have gone the
other way. Austria was desperate to assert authority over the emerging greater
Serbia. Did the Kaiser’s blank cheque message encourage them more than was
necessary. Did the Kaiser stay out of touch for too long after writing his
cheque? Did the French government play their hand with the Russians as wisely
as they could? Was the misunderstanding of Prince Lichnowsky (German
Ambassador) and his conciliatory offer to Sir Edward Grey (British Foreign
Secretary) simply a result of new technology (a crackly phone line)? Of the
forces working against war, perhaps the strongest across all countries was
emerging socialism. When the leader of France’s socialists, Jean Jaures, was
assassinated in a Paris restaurant on 28<sup>th</sup> July, almost the last
hope for peace went with him<span style="font-size: x-small;">(3)</span>. He was perhaps the only man with the stature and
charisma to unite the working classes in all countries in refusal to fight. If
the socialist view had prevailed, maybe world revolution (certainly the
strategy of the Bolsheviks) would have followed rather than world war. Would
that have been any less miserable and damaging?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Why the years of attrition and unacceptable loss?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Right up until the declarations of war, there
had been strong protests against war in Germany Britain and France,
predominantly led by the socialists. However, after the event there was a rapid
change to full commitment with all nations believing they had God on their
side. True, the enthusiastic rush to volunteer in Britain was based on a false
assumption that victory would be a formality – and over in 4 months rather than
the 4+ years it took. France was galvanised by being invaded. In Germany the
people were hoodwinked into believing theirs was a defensive war for the honour
for the Fatherland, after Russian mobilisation. In Russia the ill informed
people rallied to the call of the Tsar. So, once in, there was a conviction in
the justice of their cause and determination to stick it out. Censorship and
propaganda on all sides were able to conceal from the public for a long time
the scale of casualties and the horrific costs of continuing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">To be fair to the much-maligned British
Minister of War Lord Kitchener, he saw from the start that the war would be
long and arduous<span style="font-size: x-small;">(4)</span>. He saw Britain's small army dragged into a war in conditions not of her
choosing, and that it would take three years to produce an army that could
match the French and German counterparts. Like most military opinions he was of
the view that the decisive theatre would be the Western Front, and once trench
warfare had become established there would be little option but to stick it out
to the end in attritional fashion. It was the politicians who were more likely
to be supporters of alternative strategies such as Gallipoli, Mesopotamia and
Palestine. Eventually everyone became sick of the war, but things had gone so
far, extricating one’s country was difficult. Peace overtures were made from
various sources – Germany, the Vatican, Woodrow Wilson – for nearly two years
leading up to the Armistice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mostly, nations concluded they had
stronger reasons to stay in the war than pull out. Bulgaria, Rumania and Italy
had been the most opportunist entrants, and were perhaps the flakiest in their
resolve to stay in.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> Turkey had thrown her lot in with Germany early on, and was staying in with increasing reluctance. </span>When Russia
eventually pulled out the result was a punitive peace treaty followed rapidly
by revolution, anarchy and civil war<span style="font-size: x-small;">(5)</span>. Hard to say which was worse.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. What about the peace?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Cessation of hostilities was achieved (at
least on the Western Front) by the Armistice of 11<sup>th</sup> November 1918.
This was a military document requiring withdrawals and handing over of weapons
in order to ensure Germany would be unable to resume hostilities any time soon<span style="font-size: x-small;">(6)</span>.
It was severe, particularly in its continuation of the naval blockade
(condemning the German people to continuing famine), but one look at the
Brest-Litovsk treaty showed people what would have been applied by Germany if
the boot were on the other foot.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Armistice with Germany was a clear
victory for the Allies - it was effectively unconditional surrender. But
armistice victory was a very different matter to winning the peace.
Interestingly, the USA did not become formally a member of the Allied Powers
but an ally in the conflict. The distinction may be small, but the Agenda for
the Versailles Peace Conference was for Wilson more about his fourteen points,
and for the Allied Powers it was more about restitution and reparations.
Germany had tried to seek an Armistice based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points, and
the Allied Powers had insisted on the Military solution described. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The upshot was that no-one won the peace.
Hitler was able to use the grievances contained within the Versailles Treaty to
stoke the fires of national socialism. Successively, he overturned the German
grievances over demilitarised Rhineland; union with Austria; Czech Sudetenland,
and finally Poland to provoke the horrors of 1939-45.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Conclusions<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">No matter how hard we try, we cannot avoid
looking at the outcomes of WW1 with 100 years hindsight. What seems
incomprehensible to us now, must have felt necessary and unavoidable then.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Wilson 14 points were not aimed at the
dismemberment of Germany, but at a safer, fairer, democratic world. Even
knowing what happened, they still look decent and reasonable proposals. Most of
them were implemented by the Versailles Treaty:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Adequate guarantees for the reduction of
national armaments<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">An absolutely impartial adjustment of
colonial claims, the interests of those peoples concerned having equal weight<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">All Russian territory to be evacuated, and
Russia given full opportunity for self-development, the Powers aiding<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Complete restoration of Belgium, in full
and free sovereignty<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">All French territory freed and the wrong
done by Prussian in 1871 in the matter of Alsace Lorraine righted<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Re-adjustment of Italian frontiers on lines
of nationality<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Peoples of Austria-Hungary accorded an
opportunity of autonomous development<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro evacuated, Serbia
being given access to the sea, and relations of Balkan states settled on lines
of allegiance and nationality<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Non-Turkish nationalities in the Ottoman
empire assured of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles to be permanently
free to all ships<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">An independent Polish state<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">A general association of nations must be
formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees
of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states
alike.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">All of these happened, the only exceptions being:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11pt;">Removal as far as possible of all economic barriers</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.6667px; text-indent: -18pt;">. </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; text-indent: -18pt;">Open covenants of peace and no secret
diplomacy in future</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Absolute freedom of navigation in peace and
war outside territorial waters<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In the light of these, there is an
argument that WW1 was not entirely a waste of effort. The price paid was far
too high, but the end of four imperial hegemonies and the liberation of nations
to enable Yugoslavia; Czechoslovakia; Poland, Finland and the Baltic states to emerge
were world changing. Undoubted wrongs, such as Belgium and the rape of NE France
were put right. The League of Nations was a flawed organisation but surely
benefited the planning of the next version, the UN.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In those senses it was a Great War, but
what a pity that it happened.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p><span style="font-size: x-small;">(1) See post 31/10/2014</span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p><span style="font-size: x-small;">(2) Post 6/11/2014</span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p><span style="font-size: x-small;">(3) Post 9/11/2014</span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p><span style="font-size: x-small;">(4) Post 12/6/2016</span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p><span style="font-size: x-small;">(5) Post 22/1/2018</span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p><span style="font-size: x-small;">(6) Post 11/11/2018</span></o:p></span></div>
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<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-10356037341676012862018-11-11T18:32:00.003+00:002018-11-11T22:04:05.349+00:00Postcards from Mons Armistice Day<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqPqIVh7OxQsJyi4v2eG9QOROUBf0Oho3bHIxQGZgj1C0lEFIklzSBeEI_uIqe7s5biqaDKA7G50U4pJFzLeDVTOGE11332EiZkJltpuQD3ILnDPigV6UQANIkPrhYIfbzg5uqq4WdDv51/s1600/IMG_4007.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="789" data-original-width="1600" height="314" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqPqIVh7OxQsJyi4v2eG9QOROUBf0Oho3bHIxQGZgj1C0lEFIklzSBeEI_uIqe7s5biqaDKA7G50U4pJFzLeDVTOGE11332EiZkJltpuQD3ILnDPigV6UQANIkPrhYIfbzg5uqq4WdDv51/s640/IMG_4007.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">La Grande Place Mons on 10th November prepares for the Armistice Day</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<i>An enthralling way to sign off our chronological memories of the Great War. Mons has the distinction of marking the start and finish of the British and Empire involvement. Adam and I had visited Mons on August 23rd 2014 to explore the first skirmish and then the first battle for the British Expeditionary Force. It has been great to return and mark the end.</i><br />
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At Casteau, a village on the eastern limits of Mons, there are two low key memorials that bookend WW1. </div>
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This one on the left marks the spot where the first shot of the war was fired by Corporal Thomas of the 4th Royal Irish Dragoon Guards started a skirmish that ended with a six mile pursuit to Soignies and the capture of five Germans by Captain CD Hornby and his men. The plaque reads:<br />
<i>This tablet is erected to commemorate the action of 'C' squadron 4th Royal Irish Dragoon Guards on 22nd August. Corporal B Thomas fired the first shot</i> <i>for the British Expeditionary Force and Captain CB Hornby led the first mounted attack against the Germans.</i><br />
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Across the road, literally, an even more obscure plaque, today hidden behind a parked digger, denotes the place where the Canadians paused on their way to liberate Mons on the morning of 11th November.</div>
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We took in the station on the canal, at Obourg on the outskirts of Mons, where the Middlesex Brigade performed heroics on the afternoon of 23rd August in the battle 'proper' for Mons. They held out for hours against overwhelming numbers before retreat into Mons became a necessity. The plaque reads:</div>
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<i>Near this spot on 23rd August 1914 the honour fell to the 4th battalion Middlesex Regiment to fire the first shots of the Battle of Mons. On the roof of this building an unidentified British soldier made the supreme sacrifice in order to protect the retreat of his comrades.</i></div>
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The enormous and impressive Mons Communal Cemetery has large areas devoted to CWG and Belgian War dead from both world wars. The CWG area is designed by Lutyens and is unusual for the number of nationalities marked there. The photo below includes British, Russian, Rumanian, French and German headstones.</div>
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Beautiful trees throughout the main area filled with mausoleums and extravagant memorials.<br />
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A moving ceremony for the Armistice was held here today. The atmosphere was fitting - a chilly breeze with lowering skies above showers of yellowed beech leaves. The town has been largely made over to the Canadians, who predominated in the liberation of the town on 10th and 11th November.<br />
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Finally, a two hour ceremony in the Grande Place:<br />
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The Canadian Defence Minister addresses the crowd and participants.<br />
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The elderly gent being helped across the square is the 91 years old nephew of George Lawrence Price, the last British and Empire soldier to die in the war, killed by a sniper's bullet at 10.58am on 11th November.<br />
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seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-12429472358008620512018-11-11T08:00:00.000+00:002018-11-11T08:00:37.453+00:00Armistice day and its aftermath<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkA27sRKsLclUM2ppivoXXl0D2MEGXE49TGPhnu1QuVlHg2wN_hAczp2Mb6FQIpijDuqJDqMbrlV3oMfC457RWPzAtyXBGVjSvOLxtQbvo2TlRGCA5b32a01-o4Uz2xwUJdFJ4smVvv4O9/s1600/Compiegne.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="185" data-original-width="272" height="272" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkA27sRKsLclUM2ppivoXXl0D2MEGXE49TGPhnu1QuVlHg2wN_hAczp2Mb6FQIpijDuqJDqMbrlV3oMfC457RWPzAtyXBGVjSvOLxtQbvo2TlRGCA5b32a01-o4Uz2xwUJdFJ4smVvv4O9/s400/Compiegne.jpeg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Verneuil's painting of the Armistice signing. Foch, receiving<br />the German plenipotentiaries is standing, flanked by his deputy,<br />Weygand, and Admiral Wemyss.</span></td></tr>
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<br />
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>The signing
process was completed at 5.20am on 11<sup>th</sup> November, and the outcome
was passed swiftly to the Allied capitals. First to announce publicly was Paris
at 9.00am, and one hour later Foch arrived in person at the War Ministry to
brief the Prime Minister Clemenceau. In London, PM Lloyd George issued a
communiqué via the press bureau at 10.20am; and in New York the communiqué was
released at 2.30pm. Within minutes the streets were thronging with jubilant
crowds. Along the Western Front itself, the reaction was less of jubilation
than a mixture of happiness, relief and resignation. The order for the 11.00
ceasefire was passed inconsistently along the lines. In many areas artillery
and infantry action continued until close to, or right up to the deadline.
Poignantly. 2,738 men died after the signing of the terms at 5am. The two last
British and Empire fatalities of the war both occurred close to the very first
– Mons. George Ellison of the 5<sup>th</sup> Royal Irish Lancers* was killed at
09.30 in the outskirts, and the Canadian Private George Price was killed by a
sniper just north of Mons at 10.58.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 3.9pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>In Germany the
depression of defeat was worsened by uncertainty and the political and
revolutionary turmoil. Generally, returning troops were received as heroes who
had not been defeated but let down by their leaders (akin to Kuhn’s paradigm?).
This created the climate for the ‘stab in the back myth’, which later provided
a springboard for Hitler’s rise to power.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 3.9pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 3.9pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">This armistice
was the definitive one, following those signed with Bulgaria (September 29<sup>th</sup>),
Turkey (October 30<sup>th</sup>) and Austria-Hungary (November 3<sup>rd</sup>).
Although it brought about cessation of hostilities it did not bring peace,
which was to be a more drawn out affair. Peace was not officially declared
until 1920, when the final ratifications of the 1919 Paris Peace Conference and
Treaty of Versailles were completed. During that period, the Compiegne
Armistice had to be extended on three occasions. But on that auspicious day,
the main (and severe) requirements placed on the German nation were:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-right: 3.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US">All invaded territory including
Alsace-Lorraine was to be immediately evacuated and the inhabitants repatriated<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-right: 3.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Germany was to surrender a
large amount of war materials, specified under different classes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-right: 3.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">The Allies were to take control
of the Rhine and of three bridgeheads on the right bank in the Cologne, Koblenz
and Mainz districts, and a neutral zone was to be established all along that
bank between Switzerland and the Dutch frontier<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-right: 3.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">All Allied prisoners were to be
repatriated forthwith, but not so German prisoners in Allied hands<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-right: 3.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">German troops in Russia,
Roumania and turkey were to withdraw within the frontiers of Germany, as they
existed before the war.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-right: 3.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">The treaties of Brest-Litovsk
and Bucharest were cancelled<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-right: 3.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">German troops operating in
Africa were to evacuate the country within one months<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-right: 3.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">All submarines were to repair
to certain specified ports and be surrendered<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-right: 3.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Certain units of the German
Fleet were to be handed over to the charge of the Allies, and the rest to be
concentrated in specified German ports, disarmed and placed under Allied
surveillance….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-right: 3.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">The existing (naval) blockade
was to be maintained.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 3.9pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">The duration was
for 36 days, with the option to extend (see above). Any failure by Germany to
adhere to these stipulations would mean annulment of the agreement.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjH7X9cts6hZ78MrdXvoDYCELgaYgIsVqLh7fLksIiCaonY9Icr8wk3teHVl76_UuKxCBSZhMAUttnU_jftWb5PHTiUSo0ApCqYHF3JZ0wIvVlVTKSHjMv4OMQMwIx0CbjEj9Iif-chMfT/s1600/Allies+Compiegne.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="258" data-original-width="195" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjH7X9cts6hZ78MrdXvoDYCELgaYgIsVqLh7fLksIiCaonY9Icr8wk3teHVl76_UuKxCBSZhMAUttnU_jftWb5PHTiUSo0ApCqYHF3JZ0wIvVlVTKSHjMv4OMQMwIx0CbjEj9Iif-chMfT/s320/Allies+Compiegne.jpeg" width="241" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">A sombre Allied team after the signing</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 3.9pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US">In subsequent
years, as hindsight shaped the debate, a strong view emerged that the Allies should
not have granted an armistice to Germany but gone on to finish the job properly
– whatever that means (to paraphrase Machiavelli: in victory you must either
be generous to your enemies, or crush them totally). This is surely wrong? The
Germans may have been defeated, but the Allies were exhausted and still
incurring large numbers of casualties. From their recent advances they now had
extended communication lines over difficult, battle-scarred territory. They
were not in a state to advance rapidly into Germany, where resistance would
undoubtedly have been more stubborn, extending the war well into 1919. In any
case, the terms of the armistice were effectively those of unconditional
error, short of the German troops throwing down their rifles. They gave the
Allies everything they wanted - and everybody had had enough. The
Armistice was a military document, not based on Wilson’s Fourteen points, and not necessarily
directing the agenda for necessary peace conference.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">A final quote
from John Buchan’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“A History of the
Great War”</i>, a mammoth chronicle of the whole conflict, which has provided
so much material and detail for my own efforts:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">“<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">At two minutes to eleven, opposite the South
African Brigade, which represented the easternmost point reached by the British
armies, a German machine gunner, after firing off a belt without pause, was seen
to stand up beside his weapon, take off his helmet, bow, and then walk slowly to
the rear.”</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">* </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Another of the battalions that had fought
at Mons in August 1914</span><span lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-74619493167508145652018-11-07T10:08:00.000+00:002018-11-07T10:15:30.709+00:00Germany Concedes<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieXJTHLb6VB8cW9c_scEVooCdnSEV5ss1IGps0wlaozKDSVZOVPBVViGH0d6agHYeIn_BlECa1aewGcjl2jjZZunNvxlzxiEXSxR9Xp1L1pUykExYwvWNgtvZcK15qBjOnZRUI6yXufr5m/s1600/A-la-une-NYT-11-1-1918-c.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="331" data-original-width="588" height="225" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieXJTHLb6VB8cW9c_scEVooCdnSEV5ss1IGps0wlaozKDSVZOVPBVViGH0d6agHYeIn_BlECa1aewGcjl2jjZZunNvxlzxiEXSxR9Xp1L1pUykExYwvWNgtvZcK15qBjOnZRUI6yXufr5m/s400/A-la-une-NYT-11-1-1918-c.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>The end was near, and Germany’s admirable
restraint and discipline were breaking down everywhere. The people were mutinous
– deeply upset by false promises and years of privation. The army was damaged
beyond repair and demoralised, barring a few pockets of stout resistance.
Ludendorff briefly acted as the scapegoat for all the anger, but increasingly
came the clamour for the abdication of the Kaiser – the man who had led his
country into this terrible war. Scheidemann, leader of the social democrats in
the Reichstag was openly calling for the Kaiser to go, and his demand was taken
up across the country.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>As for the Navy? On 4<sup>th</sup> November,
widespread mutiny broke out in the German navy. Orders had been sent for the
High Seas Fleet to break out for a final despairing battle, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>but the officers and men had become so
demotivated by their years of inaction since Jutland that they refused to obey
orders. A red flag of revolution was flown on the battleship Kaiser (appropriately), and within hours
mutiny had spread to Hamburg, Bremen and Lubeck. Political delegates rushed
from Berlin to the ports, caving in to their demands and, effectively, sealing
the end for the German monarchy. Other politicians travelled with Chancellor
von Baden to Spa to consider President Wilson’s latest missive. This brought
news that the Allies were prepared to seek peace on the basis of Wilson’s Fourteen Points, but only with two important provisos – namely that they would retain their autonomy
regarding ‘liberty of the seas’; and they clarified their draconian expectation
of ‘restorations for war damage’. Germany had little choice but to face a
ruinous peace offer (much as she had imposed on the Russians at Brest-Litovsk)
and find a team of negotiators that would prove acceptable to the Allies for an
armistice process.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>For the Allied plenipotentiaries, Wilson
announced, military supremo Foch would represent the armies, and Sir Rosslyn
Wemyss, the British First Sea Lord, would represent the navies. The Germans
fielded four low key players as their plenipotentiaries – two politicians,
Erzberger and Count Oberndorff, and two military staff officer Generals, von
Gundell and von Winterfeld. On the afternoon of 6<sup>th</sup> November, these
four men and their staff set out from Berlin by rail, heading for the French
lines to the north east of Paris. Von Baden issued an appeal (to little effect) to the German people for restraint while this delicate mission was under way.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The German generals and their senior
officers were urged to put up the strongest possible resistance while the
armistice negotiations were alive. Foch and his commanders had their tails up –
as did all the men on the Allied side – and sensed they could finish off the
enemy before an official armistice. For the British it seemed that destiny
awaited some of the Divisions that fought in the opening Battle of Mons in
1914. Few of those original old contemptibles survived, but it was a matter of
Divisional and Regimental pride to retake the ground that marked the beginning
of the Great Retreat in 1914. By 8<sup>th</sup> November the northern flank was
past Conde, opening up the route to Mons. The Belgians and Plumer’s 2<sup>nd</sup>
Army were beyond Ghent and heading for Brussels. Further south, the Americans
and French were closing in on Metz, having taken the three key targets of Hirson,
Mezieres and Sedan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Foch now prepared a plan to push the
American 1<sup>st</sup> and French 10<sup>th</sup> armies into German territory
between the rivers Meuse and Moselle on 14<sup>th</sup> November. In the
feverish atmosphere of accelerating gains, all men knew the end was coming, and
there was an eagerness to get as far as possible before any ceasefire (although
feelings must have been mixed with the realisation that they were close to
surviving the killings). For example, the 8<sup>th</sup> Division of Horne’s
Army, having spent the previous year in the Ypres salient; the March retreat
and the third Battle of the Aisne, was now straining to reach Mons in time: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“… one of its battalions, the 2<sup>nd</sup>
Middlesex, travelled for seven hours in buses, and then marched twenty seven
miles, pushing the enemy before them. They wanted to reach the spot in Mons
where some of them (then in the 4<sup>th</sup> Middlesex) fired almost the
first British shots in the war….” </i>(J. Buchan The Great War. Vol IV p411).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The jubilant scenes of people in the
liberated towns and cities of France and Belgium contrasted with the sullen and
angry mood across Germany. The minor royal figures across the land provided
convenient local focus for political dissent. Nowhere was the threat of
revolution more present than in the capital. By 9<sup>th</sup> November Berlin
was in the hands of a workmen and soldiers’ council. Monarchy was dead, and
its leading symbol - the Hohenzollern monarch - had to fall. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8gZrMIaJClzqIu3wT2LPEmOBB-ZqRF65ouwvQaTwdiCTxZ796LDuA-F4LD_fsOitZXILOFmeAO7xpagG-fpJ374OByenIJR9Q_7jRUNcY84TimMJZTd51hSaKMlbWE0xzD2Gm5ovHmXue/s1600/Philipp%252BScheidemann%252Bproclaims%252BGermany%252Ba%252BRepublic%252Bfrom%252Bthe%252Bbalcony%252Bof%252Bthe%252BReichstag%252Bon%252BNovember%252B9%252C%252B1918.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="960" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8gZrMIaJClzqIu3wT2LPEmOBB-ZqRF65ouwvQaTwdiCTxZ796LDuA-F4LD_fsOitZXILOFmeAO7xpagG-fpJ374OByenIJR9Q_7jRUNcY84TimMJZTd51hSaKMlbWE0xzD2Gm5ovHmXue/s320/Philipp%252BScheidemann%252Bproclaims%252BGermany%252Ba%252BRepublic%252Bfrom%252Bthe%252Bbalcony%252Bof%252Bthe%252BReichstag%252Bon%252BNovember%252B9%252C%252B1918.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Scheidemann announcing the birth of the Weimar<br />Republic from the Reichstag, 9 November 1918</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">On Saturday 9<sup>th</sup> November, the
Chancellor von Baden issued a decree announcing a socialist government (to
become the Weimar Republic) headed by five politicians from the two main
parties. Alongside this, Kaiser Wilhelm announced his intention to abdicate and
that his son, the Crown Prince, had relinquished his right to succession. The
following day the two of them crossed the border into neutral Holland and took
refuge in a country house at Amerongen, east of Utrecht. And so, another great
dynasty - the Hohenzollerns – moved out from power and influence, like the
Russian Romanovs one year earlier, and the Habsburgs one week earlier.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The German armistice delegation, which had
departed Berlin on 6<sup>th</sup>, arrived late in the evening of 7<sup>th</sup>
to the French front line near Choisy au Bac. On the morning of the 8<sup>th </sup>they presented themselves to Foch and Wemyss at the now famous railway carriage
in the Compiegne forest. Foch asked them what it was they wanted. Nonplussed,
they responded with a wish to discuss armistice terms. Foch told them,
brusquely, there would be no ‘discussion’ of terms. If they wished an
armistice, then ‘take it or leave it’ terms that he now handed them would
apply. If they refused, the Allies were committed to finishing the war with no
armistice. Shocked by the approach<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>-and
the severity of the terms – the Germans asked for time to consult with Berlin,
and a provisional ceasefire. Foch refused the latter, and gave them a maximum
of 72 hours (i.e. until 11am on 11<sup>th</sup> November) to agree to the
armistice terms. A courier was dispatched to make the complex journey to Spa
(no fax or email available). It took him until the morning of 10<sup>th</sup>
to get there. The panicked military leadership phoned through to Berlin, where the new
Government debated the terms immediately. They saw no choice but to accede.
Their decision was passed rapidly to the delegation at Compiegne, and at 5am on
11<sup>th</sup> the armistice was signed. Foch immediately sent the historic order to all his generals:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.0cm; margin-right: 46.45pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">“Hostilities
will cease on the whole front as from 11<sup>th</sup> November at eleven
o’clock. The Allied troops will not, until a further order, go beyond the line
reached on that date and at that hour”. <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 46.45pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 46.45pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">The largest and worst conflict in history was
over.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-65974271344594351582018-10-27T20:19:00.000+01:002018-10-27T20:19:18.810+01:00One Hundred Days - 5: The Last Weeks for Germany<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYGZgKbi2PBXpl0cFdpuw4U5zUAwNhYENF3m2j9wau0dz9Ld9uhYvPVvNA5dHgnVt_izSAG30bFXxj8FyMijfBBegA-osi3-SazqPPUH4N65y6vlJsMI1T2DsVZlmzK_hLuB_dw-OlpAwo/s1600/brit-lille-liberate.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="502" data-original-width="700" height="229" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYGZgKbi2PBXpl0cFdpuw4U5zUAwNhYENF3m2j9wau0dz9Ld9uhYvPVvNA5dHgnVt_izSAG30bFXxj8FyMijfBBegA-osi3-SazqPPUH4N65y6vlJsMI1T2DsVZlmzK_hLuB_dw-OlpAwo/s320/brit-lille-liberate.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Lille was liberated by British forces on 18th October</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US"><i>Of all the blows suffered by Germany
between July and November, the breaking of the Siegfried Zone was the most
shattering, militarily. At the end of September denial still flickered among a
few in the German hierarchy, but most realised their military position was now
hopeless. Plans to prolong the war until 1919 had been replaced by the
desperate objective of lasting out to strengthen the negotiating position of
the German politicians. Hindenburg and Ludendorff shifted position to make
strident demands that peace negotiations should be accelerated. On 28<sup>th</sup>
September, the Kaiser sacked the recently appointed Chancellor, von Herzig, and
his foreign minister. Prince Maximilian von Baden – a 51 years old aristocrat
and self confessed liberal democrat – was handed the poisoned chalice, amid
military despair and civil unrest.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>At their first meeting, on 3<sup>rd</sup>
October, Hindenburg and Ludendorff informed von Baden that a debacle was
imminent, owing to Allied tank strength and the weakness of German reserves.
The Prince immediately cabled a note to President Wilson, accepting Wilson’s
Fourteen Points* and pleading for a just peace. Wilson replied, seeking
clarifications of Germany’s intentions and, as the days passed anxiously, von
Baden conceded further on previous soundings and offered withdrawal of the Army
behind German Borders. Wilson’s final reply on 14<sup>th</sup> October refused
any unhindered German withdrawal without an armistice on the Allies’ terms. In
effect, Germany now had to surrender or be crushed.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">On the evening of 10<sup>th</sup> October,
Foch’s forces were pressing on the Germans from all sides. Haig was with the
British 1<sup>st</sup>, 4<sup>th</sup> and 5<sup>th</sup> Armies on the
outskirts of Le Cateau – scene of Smith-Dorrien’s 2<sup>nd</sup> Army Corps
heroic stand in August 1914 (see Post 8/12/2014). Pershing and Gouraud were
threatening the great German railway junction ay Longwy in the south; and
Germany’s main northern centre at Lille was now menaced by a pincer movement by
advancing British, French and Belgian forces. Ludendorff’s last ditch plan was
to put most of his resources into the defence of Longwy in the south and Lille
in the north. This meant that other places – for so long key strongpoints of
the German occupation – fell with relatively little resistance. Mangin’s army
pushed forward between the upper rivers Aisne and Oise, and across the Gobain
massif. Haig advance east in the centre towards Valeniciennes, and on 17<sup>th</sup>
October the Germans evacuated Douai – a moment of great significance. King Albert,
commanding the Belgian, Plumer’s 2<sup>nd</sup> British and Degoutte’s 6<sup>th</sup>
French armies, began to move rapidly across Belgium. By 16<sup>th</sup> October
they were along a line well to the east of Ypres and Diksmuide – from Ostend on
the coast, through Bruges to Harlebeke on the river Lys. All these troops were
now in open country, and the Germans had neither time nor resources to build
defensive positions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">With Plumer in Harlebeke and Horne in
Douai, Lille was threatened from the north and the south west, and was untenable.
Following a further breakthrough at the canals junction at Pont-</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">à</span><span lang="EN-US">-Vendin, south of the
city, the Germans retreated, and Lille was liberated amid joyous scenes on 18<sup>th</sup>
October. To the south, Mangin continued; having taken Laon on 13<sup>th</sup>
October, he pushed the Germans further back. Paradoxically, their lines were
now becoming so shortened they were able in several key points to increase
their resistance as they fell back, and the fighting was still fierce.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Now Lille had fallen, Haig had his long
dreamt of opportunity to plan an advance into Belgium. He knew he would face
determined defences in Valenciennes and in the Mormal Forest, and decided to
bypass them, forcing a ten mile passage in the gaps between; past Maubeuge
and into southern Belgium and its symbolic town of Mons. Haig made his move on 17<sup>th</sup>
October. Centred on Le Cateau, he advanced with Rawlinson’s 4<sup>th</sup>;
Byng’s 3<sup>rd</sup> and part of Hornes 1<sup>st</sup> armies on a thirty
miles front from Bohain to Denain. The German defence was strong and they
fought bravely against superior forces, but by 23<sup>rd</sup>, Haig had
converged on the gap that he wished to force. On that day he launched his last
full scale action of the war on a fifteen miles front.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The only area where dramatic advances were
not made was in the Argonne, where Pershing’s 1<sup>st</sup> USA Army was mired
in attritional struggles against well set defensive positions throughout the
forest. This was ironic, given Pershing’s earlier stance and comments (see Post
15/9/2018). His own army was now in a position similar to that of the
inexperienced British army at the Somme in 1916. The Germans held out until the
end of the month, but inevitably conceded ground as, elsewhere, the wider front
crumbled. The Germans were being corralled into the flat plain around Liege,
where they would be trapped unless they retreated across their own borders. If
the Americans completed their mission, it seemed likely the German army would
be split into two large groups, with the southern armies being pushed out of
Lorraine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4mRmGlK0-PkwE4Q5_Wn69_Kb7j8urFh-YExlq0JDb6jKrSh4RjgF7PSadgglJ40T5nzwBuOL71gvRudngdvzRbEJXuUh1VGksmU2EfbVX70g1Y04iimxq9BtKBC6ctHbNdqj6oKmDdogA/s1600/Reichskanzler_Prinz_Max_von_Baden.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1114" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4mRmGlK0-PkwE4Q5_Wn69_Kb7j8urFh-YExlq0JDb6jKrSh4RjgF7PSadgglJ40T5nzwBuOL71gvRudngdvzRbEJXuUh1VGksmU2EfbVX70g1Y04iimxq9BtKBC6ctHbNdqj6oKmDdogA/s320/Reichskanzler_Prinz_Max_von_Baden.jpg" width="222" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Prinz Max von Baden.<br />A brief and unhappy stint as the<br />Kaiser's last Chancellor.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US">By the end of the month, defeat was very
close. Realising the impossibility of avoiding it, Ludendorff resigned on 26<sup>th</sup>,
leaving it for others to sort out his mess. His successor was von Groner, who
was a staff officer rather than a field General, and could do nothing to alter
the tide of events. He found himself sharing his HQ at Spa with Kaiser Wilhelm,
who was finding the civil unrest in Berlin too hot for his liking.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Foch was now ready to make his final moves.
On 1<sup>st</sup> November, Pershing and Gouraud finally broke out of the
Argonne. Foch unleashed the new American 2<sup>nd</sup> Army, under General
Bullard, across the Woeuvre plain, driving the planned wedge between the two
halves of Germany’s armies. Haig’s final moves began on 4<sup>th</sup> November
along a thirty miles front. He swept up Valenciennes, and surged forward with gains
all along his lines. The defence was still strong, but the Allies were not to be
denied. Thirty two weakened German Divisions were crushed and a further 20,000
prisoners were taken.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">On 6<sup>th</sup> November the separate halves of the Germany military machine were in flight, heading for their own borders.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">*</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">As set out in Wilson’s famous speech to Congress in January 1918 – See
Post 3/1/2018<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-33115319473720479962018-10-08T08:52:00.000+01:002018-10-08T08:52:05.480+01:00The Capitulation of Germany's Allies: 2 - Bulgaria and Turkey<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Cambria; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoYIAPdzw8TnyFCHaLCX9K-PtZ85_6ikSlp7W-CHp45_jlH2PZn1NnN7EI8yfpZtdFdxuEpYI9Y8wn9xIvjL27BqMX6oyowHQHjTUxGleRSoDzdGSveR2lsGdFxzcLj9yCLVDW9Xu1WmjC/s1600/Zar_Ferdinand_Bulgarien.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1505" data-original-width="1024" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoYIAPdzw8TnyFCHaLCX9K-PtZ85_6ikSlp7W-CHp45_jlH2PZn1NnN7EI8yfpZtdFdxuEpYI9Y8wn9xIvjL27BqMX6oyowHQHjTUxGleRSoDzdGSveR2lsGdFxzcLj9yCLVDW9Xu1WmjC/s320/Zar_Ferdinand_Bulgarien.jpg" width="217" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">King Ferdinand I. A member of the<br />Saxe-Coburg dynasty, he spent <br />from 1918-48 in exile <br />in Coburg, Germany</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<i>The entry of Bulgaria to the war in 1915 had been prompted by opportunism and the ambition of its Germanophile King Ferdinand - mainly revenge on Serbia for the losses incurred in the Second Balkan War of 1913. It was followed shortly by the overrunning of Serbia, but since this time - from the Bulgarian standpoint - things had been largely at a standstill. Its more longstanding territorial aspirations against the Ottoman Empire were frustrated by the unnatural alliance with Turkey as another Central Power. Its armies, with some German support, sat behind seemingly impregnable mountain positions. The people bemoaned the deprivations of a war where the Germans exacted the high price of their support in food crops.</i></div>
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<i><br /></i>
<i>Turkey, and the rump of its Ottoman Empire, was crumbling at an alarming rate.</i></div>
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<i><br /></i></div>
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<u><span lang="EN-US">Bulgaria. </span></u><span lang="EN-US"> Bulgaria’s fragile resolve was tested in late May 1918 through a spirited offensive by Greek troops from Salonika along the river Vardar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Shortly after this, the French replaced General Guillaumat as Commander-in-Chief for the front with the vigorous General Franchet d’Esperey – a hero of the Marne 1914. He set about preparing the front for action, even though at this stage the world’s eyes were on the German offensives in France. There were a few flurries of action, particularly in Albania where Bulgarian and Austrian forces made inroads to the Italian sector, but then the whole front settled back to its uncomfortable status quo. Political leadership changes in Sofia were little more than tacit recognition of the general discontent, and a new Prime Minister, Malinov, was unable to secure better terms from the Germans, or to pave the way for peace negotiations with the Allies.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">As events developed in the Allies favour on the western Front, d’Esperet judged the time right to launch assaults on the Bulgarian lines. Perhaps the most notable of these was the progress of the five Serbian and South Slav Divisions. Harbouring years of hatred and three years of festering grievances over Bulgaria’s entry to the war, they fought as men possessed through near impossible conditions to advance forty miles in eight days. The key to the whole campaign was the city of Uskub (today Skopje – the capital of the still disputed area of Macedonia) . By 26<sup>th</sup> October Uskub had fallen and the Bulgarian armies were split into two groups, retreating in almost opposite directions. There was now no hope, and on the evening of 26<sup>th</sup> a Bulgarian staff officer carried a white flag into the British HQ. On 28<sup>th</sup> a delegation of senior Bulgarian politicians and military accepted Franchet d’Esperey’s terms of surrender – to evacuate all occupied areas, and to put all of their military equipment and transport at the disposal of the Allies. The Allied Governments ratified the surrender, and at noon on 30<sup>th</sup> September a separate armistice was signed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Bulgaria’s precipitate collapse unnerved badly the German High Command. Ludendorff hoped initially that the great General Mackensen (See Post 3/7/2015) could hold the Allies back with a defensive line on the Danube, but he had only a small force, fully occupied in Roumania, leaving the Serbians and Slavs free to move west in the liberation of the Balkans. King Ferdinand of Bulgaria abdicated on 4<sup>th</sup> November, exiled until his death in 1948.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOX8cJSfEXOER7DLFLVzv6Q-1G5owz7DsLtRCM1OYFfywCJelBcqe7zybXSQyvULzNds3CXn9APylaxmjR2MpR82gPM4yiz3InfKwD1LxVbJcOjwAbxqkllimQw_TDWHlouee_yGUEeIgh/s1600/Mohammed+VI.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="241" data-original-width="209" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOX8cJSfEXOER7DLFLVzv6Q-1G5owz7DsLtRCM1OYFfywCJelBcqe7zybXSQyvULzNds3CXn9APylaxmjR2MpR82gPM4yiz3InfKwD1LxVbJcOjwAbxqkllimQw_TDWHlouee_yGUEeIgh/s200/Mohammed+VI.jpeg" width="173" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Sultan Mehmed VI. The <br />Last Ottoman Sultan</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<u><span lang="EN-US">Turkey.</span></u><span lang="EN-US"> A previous post (See 30/8/2018) described how Turkey’s goose (sic) had been cooked on the capture of Damascus by Allenby’s forces and Feisal’s Arabs on 1<sup>st</sup> October. By late October Allenby was in Northern Syria, cutting the Turkish rail connection to Baghdad, and Marshall’s Mesopotamian army was converging with Allenby towards southern Turkey. With the capitulation of Bulgaria, October also saw the Allies approaching from the west of Constantinople. Turkey was not yet surrounded – support might still arrive via the Caucasus and occupied south Russia across the Black Sea – but the position was hopeless. The old Ottoman Emperor, Mehmed V, had died in July. His brother and successor – Mehmed VI – was less prepared to be a puppet of the young Turks leadership and he insisted on a way out of the crisis. The pro-German Enver Pasha had to resign as leader on October 10<sup>th</sup>. The new leadership and reshuffled cabinet shared the Sultan’s realistic appraisal of the situation, as their enemies approached from south, east and west. Like the Austrian Emperor, they first appealed to President Wilson to broker an armistice. When no response was forthcoming, their Plan B was to release from prison General Charles Townshend, who had been held since the fall of Kut in 1916 (see Post 1/2/2016). Townshend was sent as an emissary to the Royal Navy’s Aegean <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7OMMI0fi74RPbb_Eoz_hjHhyldobPt8OWDYO0Fg97a3mgsDCpGIPsujx4zH4GM57_z9kvjOjRQ8dAT1dbT_Xl6g5BOeOnbAjFJhvSftxFQ_8hklZ0ZJyD273PDR28ay070gnMBeA_ug75/s1600/armistace-of-mudros-with-Turkey.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="391" data-original-width="516" height="242" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7OMMI0fi74RPbb_Eoz_hjHhyldobPt8OWDYO0Fg97a3mgsDCpGIPsujx4zH4GM57_z9kvjOjRQ8dAT1dbT_Xl6g5BOeOnbAjFJhvSftxFQ_8hklZ0ZJyD273PDR28ay070gnMBeA_ug75/s320/armistace-of-mudros-with-Turkey.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">The Armistice of Mudros 30/10/1918</span></td></tr>
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HQ on Mudros island to request an armistice on behalf of Turkey. On 30<sup>th</sup> October that armistice was signed by the Turkish delegation arriving at Mudros. The terms were similar to those of the Bulgarian truce. They included the re-opening of the Dardanelles straits and the Black Sea. Victory in south eastern Europe and the Middle East was complete.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Buchan summarises: “<i>The surrender of Turkey brought to an end the hope of the Teutonic League of using gains in the East to redress the balance in the West. It shattered the whole fabric of policy built up laboriously during the past four years between the Baltic and the Indian Ocean. It left Germany with no crutch to lean on but her Western armies” (Buchan. A History of the Great War. Vol IV p360)<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i><br /></i></span></div>
seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-53052804811807923042018-10-07T10:24:00.000+01:002018-10-07T10:24:00.048+01:00The Capitulation of Germany's Allies: 1 - The End for Austria-Hungary<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZgGSR5-yWRtVJ0L5UKkNUIj8Y4v6YbWFnyEyKG79lJoFdIyJTpFBYTVaZjCwnFkgnhTrmrgJUQ3AOscY7NPHWDmzcOKC36NEGj9siMM_JMd4-bWX2uDUwY1BNLnePPOe8a0nSjexJmoGr/s1600/Austria+hungary.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="450" data-original-width="650" height="276" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZgGSR5-yWRtVJ0L5UKkNUIj8Y4v6YbWFnyEyKG79lJoFdIyJTpFBYTVaZjCwnFkgnhTrmrgJUQ3AOscY7NPHWDmzcOKC36NEGj9siMM_JMd4-bWX2uDUwY1BNLnePPOe8a0nSjexJmoGr/s400/Austria+hungary.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Austria-Hungary. The unsustainable empire of 1914 <br />shown in today's money.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<i><span lang="EN-US">The great swathes of Eastern Europe
occupied by Germany and her allies not only created an enormous buffer zone to
the east of Germany’s border, but also provided essential food and raw materials
for the German war effort. Since Bulgaria’s entry war in 1915 – swiftly
followed by the occupation of the Balkans </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(see Post 29/9/2015) there had been no real
threat to the communications between Germany in the west and Turkey’s (now
shrinking) Ottoman Empire in the east, despite Roumania’s brief ambitious
flickering in1916.</span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>Now, as the one hundred days on the Western
Front unfolded, all was about to change. Austria-Hungary’s last major front in
Italy was far from secure, although nearly impregnable in its northern and
western reaches in the mountains. Allenby and the Arabs had opened up northern
Syria (See Post 30/8/2018) and General Marshall’s British forces were pushing
into north Mesopotamia. The largely forgotten front at the Salonika beachhead
now stretched for more than 200 miles to the Adriatic coast of Albania. The
Allied forces comprised a multinational force of 26 Divisions. From Salonika at
its eastern end, Greek, British, French, Serbian, South Slav and Italian troops
lined up against modest Bulgarian forces but formidable geographical barriers.
The Commander-in-Chief was now General Franchet d’Esperet, previously the
French 5<sup>th</sup> Army commander, and another hero of the first Battle of
the Marne (See Post 13/12/2014).<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>The days were numbered for Austria-Hungary,
Bulgaria and Turkey – in fact they had less than the one hundred being endured
by the Germans in the west.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span lang="EN-US">Austria-Hungary. </span></u><span lang="EN-US">The Austria-Hungary Empire, created in 1867 and ruled with
difficulty by the Habsburg Dynasty, had been in trouble since before the war. A
largely unsuccessful war had brought it to its knees – militarily and in morale terms. Its armies’ greatest success had been in the German-led rout at
Caporetto in late 1917 (See Post 13/11/2017). Then, the advance on the plains
had been held at the River Piave in front of Venice and was in a precarious
position (although the Italians were still weak after Caporetto and posed
little offensive threat). As Germany’s longstanding and closest ally, the
Austrian leadership was, however, put under pressure by Ludendorff to
contribute to his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kaiserschlacht</i>.
Some Austrian troops were sent to the Western Front (for the only time in the entire
war), but principally Ludendorff wanted them to advance in Italy to keep up the
pressure on that front.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">C-in-C Armando Diaz. More<br />human and more effective<br />than predecessor Cadorna.</span></td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-US">The Italians, under their new
Commander-in-Chief General Armando Diaz, became aware of Austrian movements all
along their front in late May. Diaz made prompt and effective improvements to
his defences, even though he had lost the British and French Divisions (and
even some of his own troops) to the crisis of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kaiserschlacht</i> in France. The Austrians’ aim was to sweep down from
the higher ground they occupied in the north and west of the front, thereby
isolating the coastal front at the Piave. The two Austrian army groups were led
by the long suffering Boroevic (See Post 16/9/2017 and 13/11/2017) in the
plains, and the hapless, deposed Chief of Staff von Hotzendorf. They disliked
each other, and were badly divided in their tactics and communications. This contributed
to a feeble implementation of an ‘Operation Michael style’ offensive in
mid-June. Just before this, as some kind of harbinger, the Austrian Grand fleet
had been effectively neutralized by the loss of its two dreadnought battleships
to an Italian torpedo boat raid – a further embarrassing blow to depressed
Austrian morale. True to form, Hotzendorff’s offensive from the mountains
failed miserably, and with it went Austria’s last chance. Although Boroevic had
more success initially, crossing the Piave in several places, poor back up
and communications meant that his advance stalled. Within a few days Diaz’s
planned counter-attack was ready, and by late June Boreovic was forced to
retreat across the Piave river, and by July the Austrians were back beyond
their starting lines. They had suffered 150,000 casualties and lost 20,00
prisoners, and Austria-Hungary was all but finished. </span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US">Diaz decided, for his own
reasons, not to pursue the enemy out of the country and further into the Alps at that point.
Shrewdly, he developed his plans gradually until October, by which time
Austria-Hungary was in even greater disarray. President Wilson had rejected emphatically a
desperate appeal by Emperor Charles for peace negotiations in
mid-September. Czechoslovakia; the South Slavs, and Croatia were issuing
independent state claims. Hungary wanted a divorce. Diaz judged that the time
was right to attack the last vestige of Habsburg power – the Austrian army in
Italy. By means of three main assaults on the plains and through the mountains,
the final campaign began on 23<sup>rd</sup> October. It must be said that it
faced fierce and determined initial resistance, but by 2<sup>nd</sup> November
the Austrian army was collapsing at all points. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Anticipating this, the government in Vienna
had, on 27<sup>th</sup> October, declared itself ready to agree to any
conditions set by the Allies for an armistice and separate peace, regardless of
Germany’s intentions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Austrians arriving in Padua 4th<br />November 1918 to sign the Armistice</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US">At 3pm on 4<sup>th</sup> November an
armistice was signed at Villa Giusti in Italy, ending all Austro-Hungarian hostilities. By this point,
most of the empire was in open revolt. On 31<sup>st</sup> October the Hungarian
President, Tisza, was murdered in Budapest. Ironically, in July 1914, he had
been the one person in Government who had argued against declaration of war on
Serbia. He now paid the price for losing the argument. The Emperor Charles
retreated to his palace and awaited his fate.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-87653381907473396482018-09-24T11:51:00.001+01:002018-09-24T11:51:21.246+01:00One Hundred Days - 4: The Battle for the Saint-Quentin Canal <!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjrKM4V3lB_MBN73mtW17dms_V6sfbha7uzFC85JNa99L2xQ5wp5nIKT3TG2qJDwcVl7bamS5xrzQUYErVRCNm0WPvZwgqNhfrisswC71pvO3pR7oIK38qm6qLZKv74tduqcU5e6CrWG0v/s1600/Riqueval_Bridge_1918.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="634" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjrKM4V3lB_MBN73mtW17dms_V6sfbha7uzFC85JNa99L2xQ5wp5nIKT3TG2qJDwcVl7bamS5xrzQUYErVRCNm0WPvZwgqNhfrisswC71pvO3pR7oIK38qm6qLZKv74tduqcU5e6CrWG0v/s320/Riqueval_Bridge_1918.jpg" width="253" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">A famous moment. On the canal bank by<br />the captured Riqueval Bridge, soldiers of <br />49th Division relax, having been <br />relieved by 32nd Division.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US"><i>Ludendorff was back in command, to some
extent recovered from his physical and mental breakdown in July. He saw a
position that was desperate but not yet terminal. His forces still held firmly
to key defensive positions around Ypres: on the high ground east of Rheims; in
the Meuse valley and, most importantly, at the Siegfried zone in Picardie. If
he could keep this line until winter he would have time to reinforce, thus strengthening
Germany’s negotiating position.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>From top to bottom of the Western Front the
armies were lined up against each other for the denouement of this grotesque
war*. Ludendorff concentrated his limited reserves in Lorraine – his
communications nerve centre. The previous post outlined how the French and
Americans had moved to threaten this with the opening of the Meuse-Argonne
offensive. If Germany were to lose either Longuyon in Lorraine or the security
of the Siegfried zone defensive, then Ludendorff’s hopes for the winter would be
ruined.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>Allied supremo Foch appreciated this, but was now in
the enviable position of being able to continue with devastating assaults on
multiple points of the entire front to tie down and weaken the German
resistance.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Notwithstanding Foch’s tactical policy, the
central attack on the Siegfried zone in front of Saint-Quentin was the most
critical of this phase. The responsibility fell to Rawlinson’s 4<sup>th</sup>
army, which covered the front from Cambrai to Saint-Quentin. There was considerable
anxiety in London about potential for high casualties from a full frontal
assault on the most strongly defended section of the Western Front. Once again,
Haig’s resolve that his forces could, and would, succeed prevailed. Rawlinson
would receive flank support from Byng’s 3<sup>rd</sup> army on the north, and
from Debeney’s 1<sup>st</sup> French army to his south. For his own part,
Rawlinson wanted his army’s Australian Corps to spearhead the attack. Like
Haig, he was confident of success, but on this occasion Monash, the Australian
commander was hesitant. Just as Rawlinson's British Corps had been in action since
March with little relief, so had the Australians, and they had been leaders in
many of the crunch confrontations. Mounting casualties and tiredness were
having their effects. Then Monash was greatly cheered by the assignment of two
USA Divisions (27<sup>th</sup> and 30<sup>th</sup>), each comprising 15,000
fresh troops, under his command. He now agreed to Rawlinson’s request to devise
an attack to break through the Hindenburg line and open up the Germans’ whole
defensive zone**. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The Siegfried zone was formidable. Not only
were the entrenchments, fortifications and machine gun nests several miles
deep, they were given added sophistication by a network of water barriers.
These comprised the Sens</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">é</span><span lang="EN-US">e and Scheldt rivers and several canals, the most forbidding of
which was the Saint-Quentin section of the Canal du Nord – Rawlinson’s target.
The main German trenches were on the eastern bank, but advance posts on the
west bank were skilfully positioned to deter effective artillery support for
the attackers. The map shows, however, that for a 3.5 miles stretch from
Vendhuile to Bellicourt the canl ran through a tunnel. The tunnel had multiple
shafts connecting to the trenches above, so that large numbers of men could
rest and shelter there during bombardments. As it emerged from the tunnel, the
canal’s cutting was very deep, becoming shallower as it proceeded south to
Bellenglise, where it was incomplete, and dry. In effect, these forward areas
comprised the Hindenburg line, whereas the several miles of defences behind,
that extended on a line from Beaurevoir to Fonsomme, comprised the Siegfried
‘zone’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The towns of Cambrai and Saint-Quentin,
already the focus of much attention in the war, were critical to the success of
the Alies’ plans. Twenty miles apart on a north-south line they formed the
bulwarks of Germany’s defences in Picardie. Cambrai was the railhead for all
supplies to the area, and Saint-Quentin held the key to the Siegfried zone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhehUksNEOqZE41SUZqg7JEct85ish3urzwUFv9sAuKPsSNIgXsaTzE3afl-WiU_8A7dcqiH39oW9B1gIWPEHIPx64Kc_xp4OHUY9-hPolLsD2E8j5a9EMGBwleN4-7YB4V8uI9i4TmOgi5/s1600/Scan.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1191" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhehUksNEOqZE41SUZqg7JEct85ish3urzwUFv9sAuKPsSNIgXsaTzE3afl-WiU_8A7dcqiH39oW9B1gIWPEHIPx64Kc_xp4OHUY9-hPolLsD2E8j5a9EMGBwleN4-7YB4V8uI9i4TmOgi5/s400/Scan.jpeg" width="297" /></a></div>
<span lang="EN-US">Monash planned to make his attack across
the ground above the tunnel. Despite the strength of its defensive positions,
it would allow him to deploy his tanks. He nominated the fresh American troops of the
27<sup>th</sup> and 30<sup>th</sup> Divisions to make the first wave
breakthrough (see Map), and then his Australian Corps would ‘leapfrog’ them and
break into the Siegfried zone and the north west of Saint-Quentin. Two British
Corps, totalling six Divisions, would provide the follow up support. Rawlinson
made one significant (and prescient) change to Monash’s plan. At the suggestion
of its Commander, Sir Walter Braithwaite, he moved IX Corps*** into the front
line to the right of the 30<sup>th</sup> Division. Its role was to cross the
canal south of its emergence from the tunnel. Success here would enable fire to
be brought upon those defending against Monash’s tanks and infantry. The steep slopes
of the cutting were fifty feet deep, and the Germans felt them to be
impregnable, let alone the challenges of getting men and equipment across the
canal – itself 50-60 feet wide and several feet deep. Monash thought the idea mad (possibly influenced by a widespread Australian distaste for Braithwaite,
who had been Hamilton’s Staff officer throughout Gallipoli back in 1915). So, probably, did
the infantry of the 49<sup>th</sup> (Midland) Division, given the job of making
the hazardous crossing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Haig started the battle on 27<sup>th</sup>
September with a feint at the northern end, aimed at Cambrai. Byng’s 3<sup>rd</sup>
Army jumped off from the stalemated areas of the 1917 battle (See Post 20/11/2017). British and
Canadian troops advanced on a thirteen mile front. As they advanced through
Gouzeaucourt and Marcoing, they revisited the ground so fiercely contested in
operation Michael around the Flesquieres salient. On the 28<sup>th</sup>,
Plumer’s 2<sup>nd</sup> army stretched the feint to Flanders as they broke
through north of Ploegsteert Wood (south of Messines) advancing and taking
10,000 prisoners. To Rawlinson’s south, Mangin also struck in Champagne.
Meanwhile at the heart of the battle line, the 4<sup>th</sup> army artillery
had been pulverizing the German lines for 48 hours with new record breaking
numbers of shell and gas canisters. The Americans launched their assault at 6am
on 29<sup>th</sup>, along the six miles from Vendhuile to Bellicourt; while the
British opened their own attack on the next six miles down to Holnon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Unlike the recent triumphs at Amiens and Bapaume, this operation did not go according to timetable. Whether because of inexperience of the Americans, or<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>because of the scale of the challenge (or a
combination of the two) the 27<sup>th</sup> Division's attack failed. Rawlinson
brought in extra tanks in support, but these were badly mauled by improving
German anti-tank guns. Fog again interfered with plans. In poor visibility, the
American spearhead passed unaware a number of German outposts, resulting in
heavy losses to their countrymen in the following waves. The 30<sup>th</sup>
Division fared better, and did break across the tunnel mound to capture
Bellicourt, but with heavy losses, and the Australian leapfrog was not able to
reach its objectives.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiy_lMz1eWkreg8M4bW3QeHYqfHz5lItXayLRH11hq7_2xSwoUpKEKn6hom1lX0RjBHJTv27TClSDfErOBqtLSG1yRb55Uz0-TCjnp_VEvOS0HB0JeI4nZK_H9lYM6SjS_agO-Ef-5MGbUW/s1600/13thltinfwalterbraithwaite.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="814" data-original-width="589" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiy_lMz1eWkreg8M4bW3QeHYqfHz5lItXayLRH11hq7_2xSwoUpKEKn6hom1lX0RjBHJTv27TClSDfErOBqtLSG1yRb55Uz0-TCjnp_VEvOS0HB0JeI4nZK_H9lYM6SjS_agO-Ef-5MGbUW/s320/13thltinfwalterbraithwaite.jpg" width="230" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Sir Walton Pipon Braithwaite.<br />An egg. Zero at Gallipoli, hero at<br />Saint-Quentin</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US">It was Rawlinson’s modification to the
south that transformed disappointment to staggering success. Supported by a
highly effective creeping barrage, the men of IX Corps under command of
Braithwaite, moved forward. The 49<sup>th</sup> Division went first, and other
the helpful cover of fog they tackled the canal. The Royal Engineers provided
floating piers and life belts, and on the eastern bank scaling ladders were
used to climb up and into the trenches. The Staffordshire regiment famously
seized the only remaining canal bridge at Riqueval before the Germans could blow
it. With this secured, and support of a tank brigade – that had crossed the tunnel in the
30<sup>th</sup> American sector and driven down the east bank – the 49<sup>th</sup>
established a strong bridgehead and moved on to reach all of their objectives.
This included Bellenglise with its great supply and troop centre. Later in the
day the 32<sup>nd</sup> Division moved forward to relieve the 49<sup>th</sup>,
and to leapfrog them, and by nightfall the whole of the 32<sup>nd</sup> was on
the eastern side of the canal. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">This stunning success unlocked the battle.
The pressure on Monash’s advance was relieved. The following day progress east
by the 1<sup>st</sup> Division of IX Corps enabled the French 1<sup>st</sup>
army to advance and tighten the noose around Saint-Quentin. To the north Byng’s
3<sup>rd</sup> army continued to encroach on the outskirts of Cambrai. The twin
pillars of Cambrai and Saint-Quentin would hold for a further week, but their
fate was sealed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">By 8<sup>th</sup> October, the final act of
the Great war was opening, with Allied advances along the whole 250 miles of
the Western Front. As Buchan summarises it:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">“The
Belgians and Plumer were threatening Lille from the north. Cambrai was
outflanked, Saint-Quentin had fallen, and the larger part of the main Siegfried
line had gone….. Mangin had regained the west part of the Chemin des Dames, and
Berthelot had reached the Aisne and cleared all the land between that river and
the Vesle. Gouraud was through the first position in Champagne, and close on the
Brunehilde line. Pershing, though his advance was naturally slower, was feeling
for a blow at the most deadly spot of all.”<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">In the months since July, the Western Allies
had taken more than a quarter of a million German prisoners and 25,000 machine guns.
In other theatres away from the Western Front the news was even worse for Ludendorff
and the Kaiser. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">*</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">The Germans, by now significantly depleted in troop numbers (frequently
7,000 or less men per Division rather than 10,000), were still arranged in three
Army groups comprising nine separate armies. From north to south these were:
IV (under von Armin), VI (von Quast); XVII (von Below), II (Carlowitz), VIII
(von Hutier), VII (Eberhardt), I (Mudra), III (von Einem) and V (von Marwitz).
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Albert); British armies: 2<sup>nd</sup> (Plumer), ‘new' 5<sup>th</sup> (Birdwood), 1<sup>st</sup>
(Horne), 3<sup>rd</sup> (Byng), and 4<sup>th</sup> (Rawlinson); French armies: 1<sup>st</sup>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">** Terminology can
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">*** IX Corps had
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<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-38735744388980961112018-09-15T13:34:00.001+01:002018-09-15T13:43:51.569+01:00One Hundred Days - 3: The Americans at St. Mihiel and the Argonne<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEUzV2ZS3wzUfjMeS8Y3lgX9kRStRkn21OIJ_ff3UU9gg4HMybOqYYnF5ubsNidgO3tKWy5Va3TzPYa2GGt4aseEBM-3eYhZ3C2pAZbAixRJQitIXAib0aqrOFeaGikumLFBvfo6g-kd-0/s1600/John_Pershing.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1122" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEUzV2ZS3wzUfjMeS8Y3lgX9kRStRkn21OIJ_ff3UU9gg4HMybOqYYnF5ubsNidgO3tKWy5Va3TzPYa2GGt4aseEBM-3eYhZ3C2pAZbAixRJQitIXAib0aqrOFeaGikumLFBvfo6g-kd-0/s320/John_Pershing.jpg" width="224" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Pershing - hubris at St. Mihiel,<br />nemesis in the Argonne.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>The Allies were now making significant
progress towards victory on the Western Front. Although in the war since April
1917, the Americans were about to make their first independent foray in this
theatre. Previous posts have noted their contributions as part of the British
defence in Operation Michael and, notably, in a stirring attack at Belleau Wood
near Chateau Thierry in the second Battle of the Marne. Now, however, a US army
– 500,000 strong – led by its own Commander and providing its own supplies and
communications was about to make its mark at the southeastern section of the
front.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US">General Pershing was a strong man, imbued
with the hubris that often attaches to such roles. Plucked from a very
different environment chasing revolutionaries in Mexico (see Post 9/3/2017) he
had, since his arrival in France, argued for the creation of an independently
led army, rather than a supplier of reinforcements to the British and French
armies. Curiously, he still believed that the superior character and condition
of his men would prevail, where British and French armies had been dragged into
costly attritional fighting. Shades of Joffre in 1914. Admittedly Pershing’s
men were well trained and in excellent physical condition, making them less
vulnerable to the influenza that was sweeping through more tired and weakened
ranks on both sides. But they had zero experience of the atrocious realities of
modern warfare. Nevertheless, Pershing regarded lightly and condescendingly the
lessons so painfully learnt over the past four years. Not surprisingly, Haig
and P</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">é</span><span lang="EN-US">tain opposed his views and Foch, as
supremo who <u>was</u> able to give Pershing orders, had to manage the
tensions. The large numbers of American troops arriving in Europe on a weekly
basis strengthened Pershing’s case, of course, and Foch was minded to support
him. There was also a certain logic to allocating the north section of the
Western Front to Britain (with Belgian support at the coastal end); to the
French controlling the largest, central sector in front of Paris and Verdun;
and for the Americans to take the lead in the shortest section, to the south
east and to the east of Verdun. Their chance came with the attack on the St.
Mihiel salient.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqj8NqADbwYJvkbY_jyZ9hYNoREJDnvjjQ2JsrnMadxCbZ8HL-xWfwqBiBbFT0Dm75kOlXawjkL7q2u_D2xdaPcuTOPnwYuafB-rXdPU1Y6cCVL2Ns4lGpABAKaUr7PzgKVRhVHfc_2tJw/s1600/STMihiel1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="953" data-original-width="877" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqj8NqADbwYJvkbY_jyZ9hYNoREJDnvjjQ2JsrnMadxCbZ8HL-xWfwqBiBbFT0Dm75kOlXawjkL7q2u_D2xdaPcuTOPnwYuafB-rXdPU1Y6cCVL2Ns4lGpABAKaUr7PzgKVRhVHfc_2tJw/s320/STMihiel1.jpg" width="294" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The area around St Mihiel comprised the longest
standing salient on the entire Western Front. It pre-dated Ypres, and was
formed during the giant enveloping German movements of autumn 1914, which had
only been halted by the desperate battles comprising the ‘miracle’ of the
Marne. The map shows a sharply protruding triangle with its apex on the river
Meuse at St. Mihiel. It stretched 15 miles to the north to Fresnes and 25miles
to Pont-</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">à</span><span lang="EN-US">-Mousson on the river
Moselle to the east. Thus forty miles of line to defend rather than 25miles
across the base of the triangle. The Germans had stayed in the salient because it enabled them to threaten
key French railway routes – notably Paris to Avricourt – thereby isolating
Verdun*, and its terrain made it relatively easy to defend. The French had made costly and unsuccessful attempts to recapture the
salient through 1915, but since then it had been a comparatively uneventful area.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Foch now wanted to take it back, not only
to relieve the pressures on his own rail links, but also to breakthrough to the
Woeuvre plain and the Germans’ own railway supply routes to the upper Oise and
Aisne areas. Coming south round Luxembourg these comprised one of the two vital
arteries from the German heartland maintaining the German armies in France**.
These two networks met at the major junction at Longuyon. If Foch’s forces
could get here, the entire southern communication routes of Germany could be
isolated.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The defending German army was the 5<sup>th</sup>,
commanded by General Max von Gallwitz. He had seven Divisions to defend his
forty miles line, but numbers were depleted by influenza and long term
casualties and he had only 50,000 men, with a few Austro-Hungarians as a weak
reserve. Pershing’s first army comprised nearly ten times that number, although he deployed two divisions of 15,000 men each for the first attack. At great speed
he proceeded to move his men around the salient during early September. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Gallwitz could read the writing on the
wall. Even before the main American build up he had pressed Ludendorff for
permission to withdraw and shorten his lines. As the gravity of Germany’s
position worsened, Ludendorff recognised the inevitability and gave orders to
pull back on September 12<sup>th</sup>. Too late. At 1am on 12<sup>th</sup> an
enormous American bombardment fell on 11miles of the southern aspect of the
salient. At 5am troops went over the top, and were followed soon by tanks. The
Americans were pushing at an open door and the Germans – already preparing to
leave – fell back as quickly as they could. Within four hours the Americans had
control of the railways running through the area, and within 24 hours they had
taken Vigneilles at the base of the salient. Some further advance were made, but
the battle of the St. Mihiel salient was over in three days. The Americans, in
their first major action in the Western Front, had secured a crushing victory
with less than 1000 casualties, and the taking of 16,000 prisoners. Their most
advanced units were within range of the defensive Howitzers of Metz. Pershing
felt vindicated, and wanted to pursue the Germans hotfoot down the Meuse valley
towards Belgium, but he was to be denied.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0odCWW7EwZNAWzCVKKsrfnZppP8HaGGU1NdE8h8K1V8WwMXN71dHLhy3oL_ROs_v6BD9VgWw4lG1onzjIZSYvc67D5JeDhAMuxFXAUyCsL7w7JrA-n9O77ONgLRvzAKsM2QqaLqfqwJ9N/s1600/Decoration_of_U.S._104th_Regimental_Flag_in_France%252C_WWI.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="621" data-original-width="977" height="203" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0odCWW7EwZNAWzCVKKsrfnZppP8HaGGU1NdE8h8K1V8WwMXN71dHLhy3oL_ROs_v6BD9VgWw4lG1onzjIZSYvc67D5JeDhAMuxFXAUyCsL7w7JrA-n9O77ONgLRvzAKsM2QqaLqfqwJ9N/s320/Decoration_of_U.S._104th_Regimental_Flag_in_France%252C_WWI.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Americans (with British Helmets) after the<br />great victory at St. Mihiel.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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The British and French at Supreme HQ were
less than generous in their appraisal of Pershing’s success, viewing it as a
picnic rather than a true battle. More importantly, Foch was determined that
Pershing should join the fight alongside the French 4<sup>th</sup> Army, east
of Rheims in an operation moving through the Argonne to the north and east. Foch
now believed in a victory in 1918, but only if the Siegfried line at the heart
of the Western Front could be captured. In truth, the ‘line’ was now more of a
zone, a rectangular area of nearly 40 x 25 miles of formidable defensive
fortifications. He preferred to push well to the west of the Meuse valley to
break through the Argonne and towards the junction at Longuyon (see above),
thereby cutting supply lines to the Siegfried areas.</div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Pershing was obliged to fall in with Foch’s
plan. In an impressive feat of logistics he moved his army and its support and
equipment some sixty miles to the west in less than two weeks, to line up on
the right flank of General Gouraud (a hardened veteran who had left an arm at
Gallipoli in 1915). Gouraud and Pershing’s assault began on 26<sup>th</sup>
September. There was to be no repeat of St. Mihiel. Allied casualties were
heavy***. The Americans advanced only seven miles in three days of hard
fighting in difficult territory, and were becoming bogged down in stalemated
local actions. Pershing was now experiencing the harsh realities of the Western
Front. On 29<sup>th</sup>, in line with Foch’s strategy he called off his
attack. Ironically, on that day, the British were making perhaps the most
significant breakthrough of the 100 days – at the Canal du Nord at St. Quentin.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">*</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> A factor in Falkenhayn’s decision to attack Verdun in 1916 (See Post 2/5/2016)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">** The other ran
north of Luxembourg and round the Ardennes and through Liege to supply Belgium
and Northern France.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">*** Two future
famous generals fought in these actions, MacArthur and Patton - the latter
being badly injured in the Argonne as he led a tank advance. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-42457551699762581622018-08-30T14:53:00.004+01:002018-08-30T14:53:51.764+01:00The Arab Revolt 2: Lawrence of Arabia<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUa2yczRmo0WranBV2nSwpYmFGG7kwET0BDrmPZ3JCFF-6jzGl2zvoUxrBuAIs4q5YJWLMI62ax0nhLXjH_weEAxXLrYGBwM168rpEMIKyt3ITPwJGtNrQpYadqSln02ZhXFJEivNI2E0m/s1600/L+of+A.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="259" data-original-width="194" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUa2yczRmo0WranBV2nSwpYmFGG7kwET0BDrmPZ3JCFF-6jzGl2zvoUxrBuAIs4q5YJWLMI62ax0nhLXjH_weEAxXLrYGBwM168rpEMIKyt3ITPwJGtNrQpYadqSln02ZhXFJEivNI2E0m/s1600/L+of+A.jpeg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Col. Thomas Edward Lawrence<br />1888-1935</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US"><i>Allenby’s position after the triumphant seizure
of Jerusalem (see Post 3/12/2017) required a period of consolidation before he
could move to the next phase. His aim was to move northwards on both sides of
the River Jordan towards Damascus. With the help on his right flank of the
Arabs, and their muse TE Lawrence, the taking of Damascus would isolate Turkish
forces further south, thereby knocking the weakening Turks out of the war in
the middle east.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>Northern Palestine was still occupied by
reasonable strong forces. To the east of the Jordan the key target remained the
capture, or at least disablement, of the Hejaz railway. For this, the Arab
forces of Sherif Feisal and TE Lawrence were essential partners.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>Lawrence’s extraordinary two years of
marauding partnership with the Arab forces came from his great affinity with
the region and its culture, but in many ways he was an unlikely character for
such a military drama. Re-reading his account in <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Seven Pillars of Wisdom</span> fifty years on<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </span>(I struggled through it for O level) I found him more in the war
poet box than the military memoir. To anyone like me, to whom ‘desert’ conjures
up only monotonous miles of sand dunes, his rich descriptions of desert life
and topography are a revelation. He was a writer with a great memory; or a
great sense of imagination, or keeper of a highly detailed diary – or possibly
all three*. Lawrence’s liaison work with the Arabs became increasingly
important to Allenby, and he spent much time shuttling between supporting
Feisal and Cairo, Aqaba and Allenby’s field HQ. He understood that the Balfour
Declaration of late 1917 meant that Britain would not keep all of its promises
to Sherif Hussein in Mecca, and he had to live with that falsehood through the
rest of the campaign.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEDjdoC0XxovQvrjqmiDGKycTInrOhbyttZxBozgWAJvxjr_vPYK7Klbx0q_scp4UMijiuByGQJ2wPWQWH2h23Ue_l8x7RGiYnMzvQ0KoPVHQY7AHXBmW0sphwDBYtxt5L0itEt5vS579u/s1600/Damascus+map.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1334" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEDjdoC0XxovQvrjqmiDGKycTInrOhbyttZxBozgWAJvxjr_vPYK7Klbx0q_scp4UMijiuByGQJ2wPWQWH2h23Ue_l8x7RGiYnMzvQ0KoPVHQY7AHXBmW0sphwDBYtxt5L0itEt5vS579u/s400/Damascus+map.jpeg" width="331" /></a></div>
<span lang="EN-US">Allenby spent the first months of 1918
strengthening his positions and improving supply lines. The route to Damascus
was across difficult terrain, and included several important (and therefore
well defended) junctions. He wanted to move north along the coast also, in
order to enable supplies from accessible ports for his men as they advanced on
Damascus and beyond. His preparations were rudely interrupted by Operation
Michael on the Western Front in late March (see Post 21/3/2018). He was obliged
to send all the troops he could afford (and others that he could not) to
support the beleaguered 3<sup>rd</sup> and 5<sup>th</sup> Armies in Picardie.
This coincided with the transfer of the German General Liman von Sanders (of
Gallipoli fame) to replace Falkenhayn as the senior German Adviser to the
Turkish Armies. He resolved to hold what he had in Palestine, although he was not helped by
the indecision of the Turkish leader Kemal, who also wished to divert troops to
the new opportunities appearing in the Caucasus (See previous post). Nevertheless, these two
developments were checks to Allenby’s progress, and increased his reliance on
support from Feisal and Lawrence’s Arab forces. They advanced from their base
at Aqaba (See Post 23/7/17) and focused their disruptive attacks on and around
Ma'an, a key railway town some 130 miles south of Amman and 250 miles south of Damascus.
Allenby spent several weeks replenishing his force, borrowing and begging
troops from wherever he could. Mainly men came from the British and French
Imperial Divisions serving in Africa or Salonika. Indian and ANZAC troops
comprised the majority, with additional Senegalese, Moroccan and Algerian
troops making up a cosmopolitan ‘Egyptian Expeditionary Force’. Allenby
dispatched a group, made up of the 60 Division, the ANZAC Mounted Division and
the Camel Corps (!) to cross the Jordan and link up with Feisal, now harrying
the railway to the north of Ma'an. Another Gallipoli veteran – the Australian
General Harry Chauvel, commanded the Group.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">This strategy did not, at first, succeed.
Although Chauvel made initial progress from the Jordan’s east bank, this
created a salient that was soon threatened by the arrival to its north of
Turkish reserves. Allenby was forced to order his men to withdraw, and by 4<sup>th</sup>
May they were back on the west bank of the river. Although Feisal and Lawrence
had reached the agreed position, they were struggling to advance further north.
Allenby would have to wait until his centre and left flank were strong enough
to push the whole Turkish line in Palestine further north, in order to protect
Chauvel’s left flank. Allenby endured a difficult three months as he waited for
more men and supplies to arrive. His battle was very much a sideshow to the
unfolding dramas on the Western Front at this time. The impact of von Sanders’
organisational skills allowed for numerous testing counter-attacks on the
weaker parts of Allenby’s line, but he able to hold firm.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">September was the defining month for
Allenby (See Map). On 1<sup>st</sup> of that month the Turks were holding a
line eastward from the coast just north of Jaffa, to the south of Nablus,
across to the east bank of Jordan, then down the east bank to the Red Sea, and
then east to the Hejaz railway line north of Maan. But Allenby was now ready to
make his move in strength, and with cavalry back up Between 19<sup>th</sup> and
25<sup>th</sup> a number of decisive actions pushed and pulled the Turkish line
apart, and enabled the near extinct tactic of a cavalry breakout to flourish.
On 19<sup>th</sup> Indian and French Divisions attacked on the Plain of Sharon
in the Battle of Megiddo; and a third (this time successful) Trans-Jordan
attack moved north rapidly towards Samakh on the Sea of Galilee, and Nazareth –
where they nearly captured a desperate, fleeing von Sanders. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Freed from Turkish pressure to his left, Chauvel
was back on the east bank of the Jordan and racing north, past Amman to Irbid,
which he reached on 26<sup>th</sup>. This in turn enabled Feisal and Lawrence
to move north swiftly as the Turks fell into disarray. Allenby ordered them to
bypass Amman and head for Deraa (today Daraa), where they would link up with
Chauvel for a final advance on Damascus. <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9zKLnzQnw7w_f9eb7kfbrJ3AOoZWpAgIlaBMDsF_yyQOwMAW5GNTrqopo7HM0DsK3VYsgJxmRQOTmcA19yhLEmEHm1fmbq1PoAxr0aTbZzZOmA7-8S-W20uC_2lrrpu1P-FK8hcMMfAmI/s1600/Major_General_Sir_Edward_Chaytor.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="450" data-original-width="320" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9zKLnzQnw7w_f9eb7kfbrJ3AOoZWpAgIlaBMDsF_yyQOwMAW5GNTrqopo7HM0DsK3VYsgJxmRQOTmcA19yhLEmEHm1fmbq1PoAxr0aTbZzZOmA7-8S-W20uC_2lrrpu1P-FK8hcMMfAmI/s200/Major_General_Sir_Edward_Chaytor.jpg" width="141" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Maj-Gen Edward Chaytor.<br />Not much like a farmer in<br />this photo.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Amman itself fell to an eastwards
moving group of 11,000 men known as ‘Chaytor’s force’ – infantry, mounted
infantry and field artillery, commanded by the redoubtable New Zealand farmer
Major General Edward Chaytor. Chaytor garrisoned the city, and proceeded to
intercept and capture thousands of Turks as they straggled back in retreat from
points further south. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Von Sanders hope now was to establish a
defensive line based on Damascus, but events were moving too fast for him.
Along the coastal areas Allenby’s advance had taken Haifa and Beirut, opening
new supply routes to the east and north as far as Aleppo. In the centre, some
forward units of Chauvel’s cavalry were already north of Damascus; and on the right Lawrence had taken Deraa on 28<sup>th</sup>, sealing off the last
route by rail north to Damascus. Von Sanders had no choice but to abandon the city.
On the early morning of 30<sup>th</sup> September, in quick succession, a
detachment of Australian cavalry, Lawrence’s Camel Corps and General Chauvel entered
the city to seal a decisive defeat and strategic loss for Turkey. She had lost
the great majority of three armies in less than one month.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Further advance towards Aleppo continued
while the Arabs and British negotiated testily about the administration of
Damascus. The British force in Mesopotamia now forged further north meeting
little resistance, and by the end of October, the remains of the Turkish army was
back in Anatolia. On 30<sup>th</sup> October, Turkey signed an armistice with
the allies in total surrender.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The entry into Damascus proved to be the
final act in the drama for Lawrence. A sensitive man who disliked violence and
militarism, he had adopted both in pursuit of what he saw as his overriding
duty to help his country prevail. He knew from the outset that ‘perfidious
Albion’ would undermine promises made to the Arabs regarding self-determination
– that British (and French) self-interest would outweigh the opportunities
created by freeing the middle east from centuries of Ottoman rule. Lawrence’s
contribution to the defeat of the Turks was a significant one, although by the
time Damascus was taken he had become embittered and depressed. After taking
his leave of Feisal he approached Allenby at his HQ and asked to be released.
He returned to England on 4<sup>th</sup> October. He attended the Peace
Conference in Versailles in 1919 as a member of the Foreign Office delegation
and adviser to Winston Churchill. He had gone to lobby for Arab independence,
only to find that the British and French had already agreed their positions. Further disillusioned, he
joined the RAF, seeking some degree of anonymity, but never fully recovered. He
died in a motorbike accident in Dorset in 1935 – the famous first scene in
David Lean’s film, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Lawrence of Arabia</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">* </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">For example, this description of a desert sunset: “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">There Joyce and I sat and watched a sunset, which grew from grey to
pink and to red; and then to a crimson so intolerably deep that we held our
breath in trepidation for some stroke of flame or thunder to break from its
dizzy stillness”<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-48374294090153915382018-08-24T07:59:00.000+01:002018-08-24T07:59:49.113+01:00One Hundred Days - 2: Arras, Bapaume and Peronne <br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjC-B3DeHIsqzCFV_dl6u9rxaVxTtYcrv06DFc7vxNOVCRgQrEzsy1u9Xj6qKI1G6DDzoP-Lq8ElM4rcn-FlTJ2iYdaQD3PbsbXltUoMuql1-aEhfCA6vnfbSiSFHmpU1-IrsSrvgzRvjaR/s1600/brit-advance-bapaume.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="423" data-original-width="700" height="193" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjC-B3DeHIsqzCFV_dl6u9rxaVxTtYcrv06DFc7vxNOVCRgQrEzsy1u9Xj6qKI1G6DDzoP-Lq8ElM4rcn-FlTJ2iYdaQD3PbsbXltUoMuql1-aEhfCA6vnfbSiSFHmpU1-IrsSrvgzRvjaR/s320/brit-advance-bapaume.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Part of the British advance on Bapaume<br />August 1918</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>The war was into its fifth terrible year,
but events were now moving swiftly. The fourth anniversary of the Sarajevo
assassination on 28<sup>th</sup> June had seen Germany’s final assault still
advancing and the Allies apparently close to exhaustion along most of the
Western Front. By the anniversary of the outbreak of war, the Germans were
decidedly on the back foot, and the coordinated strategy of Foch was coming
into play. Those 37 days were as eventful in 1918 as they had been in 1914.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>There was still much to worry about. After
a lull during the worst of the crisis, public discontent and industrial unrest
had returned in Britain and France. Germany’s material gains from the
overrunning of Eastern Europe post Brest- Litovsk (see Post 22/1/2018) were
proving elusive, even illusory, but the Allies were still worried by the twin
threats of Bolshevism and German advances through Europe into Asia. British and
French forces had established bridgeheads at Murmansk (in March) and Archangel
(on 2<sup>nd</sup> August) in Northern Russia. Encouraged by the achievements of
the Czech Legion (See Post 31/5/2018) the Allies wished to bolster the
remaining nationalist forces in Russia resisting incursions by Germany
(supporting Finland) in the northern Baltic; and also to link up with the
Czechs to strengthen ‘White Russian’ resistance to the Bolsheviks further south. It was an
impossible task, and from the Volga to the Caucasus, and into northern Persia
the positions were dangerously confused and unstable. Turkey was by now nearly
as weakened as Russia, but with German support (much reduced from earlier
years) threatened to take key areas of the Caucasus, including the oil fields of
Azerbaijan (shades of WW2). British forces moving north from Baghdad (see post
7/12/2017) were dragged hundreds of miles to the Caspian Sea to help save Baku
from capture (they succeeded).<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>With the Central Powers’ positions in the east so
uncertain, Ludendorff saw that he had little option but to hold on as best he
could to his Western Front positions.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">After the success of Amiens (previous
Post), Haig agreed with Foch that a shift of emphasis further north was
preferable to maintaining the focus on Chaulnes. Byng’s 3<sup>rd</sup> Army
lined up to the north of Rawlinson’s 4<sup>th</sup> (see Map), and was closer to
the Siegfried Line – now a realistic objective. Haig instructed Byng to plan an
advance that would take the Arras-Albert railway link, and finally make Arras
safe from counter-attack. This would put him in a strong position to attack the
Siegfried line and push further north towards critical German positions in
northern France. It had similarities to the 1916 Somme plan, but this time it
was part of a much wider coordinated strategy commanded by Foch.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgn4wg9jr28PUVTLV4sfn-ekmoOAdG18I8J8zzjNJl5CRRYeW3Pfp2clh_A45R6I1iyt0P9qispOniVtqGo7UFUa-x-920CjRlIkVGbWUKWEBimu2UTdR2XvzitQkOHlRgKSvdDSmKs41y-/s1600/Bapume+battle.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1432" data-original-width="1600" height="357" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgn4wg9jr28PUVTLV4sfn-ekmoOAdG18I8J8zzjNJl5CRRYeW3Pfp2clh_A45R6I1iyt0P9qispOniVtqGo7UFUa-x-920CjRlIkVGbWUKWEBimu2UTdR2XvzitQkOHlRgKSvdDSmKs41y-/s400/Bapume+battle.jpeg" width="400" /></a></div>
<o:p></o:p><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">On 21<sup>st</sup> August, on a nine mile
front between Moyenville and Beaucourt (that included part of the 1916 front -
see Map), Byng launched his attack at 5am. It was another wet and misty dawn.
Although well dug in, the Germans were focused on shoring up their withdrawal
further south. They were surprised, and overwhelmed., and by the evening the
British had advanced to their railway objective. The following day, Rawlinson’s
army on their right flank came into the attack, creating a southern pincer for
a definitive attack on Bapaume. This took place on 23<sup>rd</sup> August, and
succeeded by 28<sup>th</sup>. In the meantime, several of the infamous villages
of the 1916 campaign were cleared, including Mametz, the Thiepval ridge, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Martinpuich and Le Sars. As these hard fought
but convincing victories unfolded, Foch broadened the attack. On the southern
flank the French pushed forward again towards the Canal du Nord. On the
northern flank on 26<sup>th</sup> August Horne’s army pushed east from its
Arras line. These multiple attacks stretched the German attempts to withdraw in
an orderly fashion to their deep defensive positions on the Siegfried line.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">On 30<sup>th</sup> August, amid advances
along most of the line from Arras to Noyon, the Australian 2<sup>nd</sup>
Division captured Mont Saint-Quentin. This hill, rising from the east bank of
the Somme guarded the town of P</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">é</span><span lang="EN-US">ronne. Having
crossed the marshy Somme during the night, they surprised and defeated – with
no artillery backing – an elite German garrison. P</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">é</span><span lang="EN-US">ronne was duly taken by the Australians the following day. This was
a great prize, and a remarkable exercise by the Australians, planned and
commanded by their leader General John Monash.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihL45fPgKy9T5IDnvYMl8dwvMIZaOzXG-Q-V6TIeN9HFq8BP9PT2e808PjFwILLAe24TmEmCq19eH28HQvJj67KwVY2BhplvMOyuypm83Iik_eRSIZf3hYZUJs5UXHcqv079JX6796woto/s1600/John_Monash_portrait.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="409" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihL45fPgKy9T5IDnvYMl8dwvMIZaOzXG-Q-V6TIeN9HFq8BP9PT2e808PjFwILLAe24TmEmCq19eH28HQvJj67KwVY2BhplvMOyuypm83Iik_eRSIZf3hYZUJs5UXHcqv079JX6796woto/s200/John_Monash_portrait.jpg" width="136" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">John Monash. Like the<br />Canadian, Currie, a<br />no nonsense leader of<br />Empire troops </span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Now Foch was turning the screw. Horne’s 1<sup>st</sup>
and Plumer’s 2<sup>nd</sup> armies in Flanders attacked, recapturing Bailleul
and Mount Kemmel (see Post 10/5/18). East of Paris, Mangin resumed his advance,
pushing further north and east. Most tellingly, Currie’s Canadian Corps (part
of Byng’s 3<sup>rd</sup> Army) attacked the pivot of the Siegfried line - the
Drocourt-Qu</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">é</span><span lang="EN-US">ant switch – and captured
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were now vulnerable.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Final small scale attacks by the British
along their new front prepared the ground for the attack on these two decisive
centres. In less than a month, the British had moved their line from an
approximate north – south connection Arras-Bapaume-P</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">é</span><span lang="EN-US">ronne to be threatening Cambrai and Saint-Quentin. In the process the
German withdrawal may have cost less casualties than their <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kaiserschlacht </i>offensive, but they had lost 70,000 prisoners of war,
and over 700 artillery pieces.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-25914893861414947892018-08-08T21:22:00.000+01:002018-08-08T21:22:43.463+01:00One Hundred Days – 1: The Battle of Amiens<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><i>It seems strange to
relate that the Battle of Amiens on 8<sup>th</sup> August 1918 marked a
mere one hundred days of WW1 remaining before the Armistice. Although it may be
easy to identify this in hindsight, it was not immediately obvious. Popular
opinion in August had expected a short violent war, over in months not years.
By late 1916 and through 1917 public opinion despaired of any ending to the
death and misery – unless it was in the different form of revolution and civil
war in Russia. The spring of 1918 had seen the Kaiserschlacht bring Britain and France to the brink of defeat. Then
the second battle of the Marne had recalled the ‘miracle’ of the first in 1914:
but Mangin’s successes in pushing the Germans back to between the Aisne and the
Oise was more of a relief than a harbinger of victory.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><i>A word in favour of
Douglas Haig at this point. He has been widely criticised, even vilified
(including by this Blog), as the Chief Donkey commanding the lions in the
trenches. In 1915 Haig had become Commander in Chief of the largest, most
complex British Army ever assembled. No previous leader had had to approach the
scale of Haig’s tasks; and indeed, he and his generals made many mistakes. By
1918 Haig’s army was larger still and even more complex. The multiple advances
- artillery tactics; shells and fuses; machine guns; mining and tunnelling;
communications; tanks, and above all (sic) aircraft – had to be planned and
co-ordinated by Haig and his staff to create the 1918 military juggernaut that
finally could overcome the German military machine. In spite of his failings
and errors (and his toxic relationship with the British Prime Minister) Haig’s
doggedness, persistence, and unswerving belief had brought him to the verge of
the 100 days, where he was to prove one of the stars. If Mangin had shown the
way at the Marne, Haig was about to direct the first significant British
assault against the new German front. </i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Through his improving
relationship with Generalissimo Foch, Haig had earned some flexibility from the
former in the way he deployed his forces. He could opt to go in Flanders, on
the Lys, or south of the river Somme. This time he chose the Somme. For his
main attack, Rawlinson’s 4<sup>th</sup> Army was lined up between Morlancourt
(near Albert) and south of the Amiens main road to Roye (see map). On
Rawlinson’s right was Debeney’s 1<sup>st</sup> French army – also under Haig’s
command. Success on this front would further isolate von Hutier’s occupation of
the Montdidier salient (see Post 3/4/2018). A major objective was Chaulnes, an
important German communications hub, midway between Amiens and Saint-Quentin.
Rawlinson assembled his best infantry – the Canadians and Australians – for the
attack. By subterfuge the Germans were misled into expecting the Canadians to
be part of an attack in <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Complete air dominance allowed detailed survey<br />of German positions before the attack</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Flanders. In the misty daybreak of 8<sup>th</sup>
August, that recalled the first day of Operation Michael in March (See Post
23/3/2018), Haig and Rawlinson implemented Foch’s tactics to near perfection.
There was no pre-bombardment. Instead, the artillery opened simultaneously with
the rush of the British and Empire ‘storm trooper equivalents’. They were
supported by 400 of the new faster Whippet tanks. Rawlinson had 21 Divisions,
including three of cavalry, at his disposal against seven depleted German
Divisions. The ground had been thoroughly reconnoitred from the air in
preparation, and in many places along the front the Germans were taken
completely by surprise and overrun. By the end of the day, 6-8 miles had been
advanced through the central areas, whereas on both flanks the resistance had
been stronger, and progress slower (see Map). The Cavalry Divisions had
advanced up to 23 miles behind the front, and attacked the railway lines east
of Chaulnes – a feat unheard of on the Western Front to date in the war.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Shades of Dad's Army. But Whippets<br />were faster and more mobile</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">On 9<sup>th</sup>
August modest further gains were made, and north of the Somme the British
advanced beyond Chipilly and Morlancourt. On 10th, forces from the French 3<sup>rd</sup>
army, moving to the high ground at Lassigny, effectively completed a pincer
movement with Rawlinson and Debeney to surround Montdidier. Von Hutier’s
substantial garrison there of men and arms was forced to surrender.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">An extraordinary three
days of success at an earlier stage of the war would probably have degenerated
into a bitter attritional struggle. Foch was so delighted that he did initially
propose further attacks but, ironically, it was Haig the over-optimist who
played back his own tactics to Foch, and argued for a halt. (Haig himself had
been told in no uncertain terms by his Generals Currie (Canada) and Monash
(Australia) that they needed time to regroup before another push). Foch soon
approved a shift in the British line of emphasis, which would come from Byng,
further north. In the meantime further gains by the French consolidated the
higher ground to the south above the Oise.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">For Germany, Amiens
was a serious reverse. Ludendorff’s only options now were for staged
withdrawals all along the front, and these were promptly begun. He wrote in his
memoirs shortly after the war <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“August 8<sup>th</sup>
was the black day of the German army in the history of the war. This was the
worst experience I had to go through… August 8<sup>th</sup> made things clear
for both army Commands, both for the German and for that of the enemy”.</i> He
was by now on the verge of complete physical and mental breakdown. In the
course of two days of anguished conference at HQ in Spa on 13-14<sup>th</sup>
August he offered his resignation to the Kaiser. It was refused, but he was
sent away for rest and recuperation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">By contrast on the
following day, 15<sup>th</sup>, mass was celebrated in Amiens Cathedral in
thanksgiving for the delivery of the city from the German threat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-5604098712135436032018-07-31T10:05:00.000+01:002018-07-31T10:05:22.821+01:00Foch's Masterplan for Victory<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Generalissimo Ferdinand Foch</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<i style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12pt;">Ludendorff was in deep trouble. His </i><span style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12pt;">Kaiserschlacht,</span><i style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12pt;"> with its shifting
emphasis of attack, had resulted in a large strategic</i><span style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12pt;"> cul de sac</span><i style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12pt;">. The sizeable territorial gains – presented to the German public as prelude to complete victory – could not disguise the failure to make the
decisive breakthrough. The Germans had been held off – just – in front of
Amiens; in front of Ypres and Hazebrouck, and now at the Marne in front of
Paris. Ludendorff was left with an enlarged salient and greatly lengthened
lines of communication across scarred battleground. From the second battle of
the Marne, where improved French defensive tactics were followed by Mangin’s
counter thrust (see previous post), his generals were requesting orderly
withdrawals to consolidate. Ludendorff’s crisis was that he could not face
withdrawal. To do so would surrender the initiative, and admit, tacitly, that Kaiserschlacht had failed.</i><br />
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>The news from other theatres was not
comforting. The Austrians, Turks and Bulgarians were looking distinctly
vulnerable, and the old Eastern Front was unstable. The plea of Kuhlmann,
German Foreign Secretary (see previous Post) in early July for a negotiated peace brought an
abreaction from the highly stressed Ludendorff. He telephoned the Kaiser from
his headquarters in Spa, and angrily demanded that Kuhlmann be sacked. The
Kaiser, feebly, complied.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>Thus, Ludendorff’s last chance was for a
positive result on the Western Front. But here, the balance of men and materiel
was slipping away from Germany. Reinforcements from Britain and significant
numbers of Americans were arriving to recover from Allied losses from Kaiserschlacht. The Germans (who had
suffered at least as many casualties) could rely only on the old and the very
young for their reserves.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Foch assumed his role as Allied Supremo and
Generalissimo following the dark first day of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Operation Michael</i> on 21<sup>st</sup> March (see Post 21/3/2018). Since that
time his unavoidable priority had been the marshalling and co-ordination of
Allied defences (including, to a lesser extent, in Italy) against the
formidable German assaults. He had not started well. He was slow to recognise
Haig’s desperate position in Flanders, and was deceived over the German stroke
on the Aisne. But by now he was growing into his role. The arrival of Americans
to boost his reserves increased his confidence and he set about improving the
Allied defences. He increased further the depth of the front lines (in the
style of von Armin at 3<sup>rd</sup> Ypres (See Post 1/10/2017). He reorganised
artillery tactics to focus on newly identified concentrations, and increased
the capacity for rapid counter attacks against early breaches of the line.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Mangin’s counter-attack at the second
battle of the Marne was the product of these improvements. The move was between
Soissons and the tip o the German salient at Chateau Thierry. Mangin's 10<sup>th</sup>
Army was even supported by four Divisions of Haig’s BEF – a sure sign of
increasing co-operation. Nevertheless, they had to overcome stiff German
resistance to succeed. The result was a further great boost to Foch as his
thoughts turned to an offensive campaign. In addition to more men, he was able
to draw on almost unlimited arms and materiel; a new breed of faster moving
tanks, and near complete air superiority (increasingly important)*.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">There was a comparative lull between
Mangin’s success in mid July and the decisive battle for Amiens on 8<sup>th</sup>
August. Ludendorff was unable to act for lack of manpower. His casualties were
high but, worse, more men were being incapacitated by the first wave of the
Spanish Flu epidemic (of which more later). Whereas Foch was biding his time.
His master plan was for complete victory, and unlike Ludendorff he had time on
his side. At this stage he did not believ that the war could be won until 1919,
and he planned accordingly. Politicians and public alike were still anxious
from the reverberations of the great German offensives, and he was not under
immediate pressure to break through. However, at the supreme war council
meeting in July, Foch authorised his deputy, Weygand, to announce that Mangin’s
victory was to be the turning point in the move from defence to attack.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">The crucial railway lines at the turning point July 1918</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US">Foch’s plan was for a series of devastating
but brief attacks at multiple points along the whole front. In any such action,
attacks would stop when progress was halted, and the emphasis would move to new
target. If this sounds similar to Ludendorff’s erratic strategy for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kaiserschlacht</i> there were important differences. Such complexity of action was now possible because of improved
co-ordination and communication – a real weapons system with infantry,
artillery, tanks and aircraft working together coherently. They had come a long
way from the unwieldy relentless attritional campaigns of 1915 and 1916.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The initial thrusts of Foch’s plan were to
secure vital areas of the front that were most endangered by German positions.
Three vital rail routes from Paris towards the front had to be removed from range.
They were at Avricourt, Amiens and the St. Mihiel salient (see Map). He also prioritised
assaults<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in Flanders to secure Bethune,
Hazebrouck and the Channel ports. Surprise and mobility were the watchwords of
his approach – indeed these had been exemplified even before Mangin’s counter
attack at the Marne, when the Australian Corps under Sir John Monash, had brilliantly
captured the village of Le Hamel to the north east of Villers Bretonneux on 4<sup>th</sup>
July.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">With these frequent surprise assaults, Foch
believed he could push the Germans back to the Hindenburg line by winter, before
launching final attacks in Spring 1919. To their great credit, it was Haig and Mangin
among others who gradually persuaded Foch that victory might be achieved in 1918.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
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<span lang="EN-US">*</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">French aircraft production had outstripped the rest, and by 1918 France
had the largest air force of all the combatants.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-50395472779637008082018-06-26T10:08:00.001+01:002018-06-26T10:08:36.773+01:00Kaiserschlacht 7 - The (3rd) Battle of the Aisne<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEil3UTqHSrVDxwPjxxOFSGd6daYwACoT_mo0RCRQxZCq2sSTrm_pw9he_gD7jBB0sfteI2fZPrhf-mbvjJz3W3RAiYQ5ifMbmFC1uQf13Qh7qSfaVprOvg3GScemMyy7NKA-qwVFE0cSSO9/s1600/aisne+1918.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="348" data-original-width="599" height="231" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEil3UTqHSrVDxwPjxxOFSGd6daYwACoT_mo0RCRQxZCq2sSTrm_pw9he_gD7jBB0sfteI2fZPrhf-mbvjJz3W3RAiYQ5ifMbmFC1uQf13Qh7qSfaVprOvg3GScemMyy7NKA-qwVFE0cSSO9/s400/aisne+1918.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Operation Blucher-Yorck June 1918. Despite the gains, the<br />Germans did not get as close to Paris as in September 1914</span></td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>The large territorial gains made in the
early stages of </i>Operation Michael<i> and
</i>Operation Georgette <i>(see Posts 21/3/2018 and 8/5/2018) brought a mixed reaction in their home country. The Kaiser, his military
leaders and many politicians looked at the maps and became overconfident,
missing the significance of the later stalemates and attrition. Talk of a
negotiated peace trailed away to be replaced by more strident demands for
territory and reparations in outright victory that was surely coming. Richard
von Kuhlmann, now a high profile foreign minister following his success at the
Brest-Litovsk treaty (See Post 22/1/2018) was one of a minority who argued for holding
fast to the new gains, but to consolidate the position in the east, and strengthen
Germany’s hand for a negotiated peace. The German people were less convinced by
the extravagant claims of impending victory. Not only were they hungry and war
weary, they were sick of the huge casualty figures resulting from the
‘triumphs’. They were now being discomforted further by British RAF air raids,
penetrating as far into Germany as Cologne.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>However, Ludendorff was not prepared to
make any concessions in his Kaiserchlacht. In the relative calm during May, he had managed to replace more than 70%
of the half million casualties <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>from the
offensive so far. Frustrated near Amiens and in Flanders, he still aimed to
split the British and French armies as a prelude to victory.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>Ludendorff now resolved to attack at the
southern limit of the great salient created by </i>Operation Michael<i>. His plan was to drive through and weaken further
Foch’s reserves by drawing them south from Flanders. He would then return to
the Somme region in the centre to apply the coup
de grace, separating the British and French. In that sense the Battle of
the Aisne* was a diversionary action. Some diversion, some action.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i><br /></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Ludendorff’s selection of the Aisne was for reasons similar to his choice of the Lys for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Georgette. </i>It was sufficiently far from the central thrust to
weaken Allied reserves there, <u>and</u> it threatened key Allied possessions. At the
Lys it was communications and the Channel ports. At the Aisne it would be the
main communication routes to Champagne (south of the Marne), and Paris itself. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Operation Michael </i>had created a large
salient, like a nose, from the Hindenburg line into the heart of France, and
his plan now was to create another salient – a large pimple on the nose –
towards the river Marne; and then another, further west towards Compiegne (see
map). In the final phase, he would consolidate these, and link with his
existing salient at Montdidier (See Post 4/3/2018) thereby isolating Amiens and
Paris. Having sucked all Allied reserves into these areas he would be enabled
to resume his advances further north.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The Army Group under Crown Prince Wilhelm
had forty Divisions between two armies to carry out this surprise move. The I
Army was commanded by the veteran von Below, and the VII Army was under von
Boene. The armies were to attack on a 30 miles front between Reims and the
river Ailette (a tributary of the Oise) to the west. Their first objective
would be the high plateau of the now infamous Chemin des Dames (See Post 13/5/2017).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Once again, the German concealed their
preparations well, and would find themselves advancing against a weak section
of the Front. This time it was the French that would bear the brunt of the
attacks, although on the right of their defensive line stood the ill-fated British
9<sup>th</sup> Army Corps. It had been formed specifically for the Gallipoli
campaign in 1915 before transferring to France at the end of that terrible
saga. It had been commanded by General Hamilton Gordon since 1916, and had
recently taken a severe mauling at the Battle of the Lys; being transferred
south to this quiet (sic) sector to recuperate. Marshall Foch still believed
the main German resumption would come against Arras or in Champagne, and had
opted to leave the Chemin des Dames lightly defended by five divisions of the 6<sup>th</sup>
French Army, under General Maistre (who had finally won it from the Germans in
the Battle of Malmaison in October 1917 (see Post 10/12/2017)).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US">The German assault began with the now
familiar gas and heavy artillery barrage through the night of 26-27<sup>th</sup>
May. Soon after dawn an irresistible attack of storm troopers and infantry
broke through the weak defences on the plateau, and before long they were on
the Aisne. On the right, the British had more initial success in holding the
Germans but by afternoon they were forced back across the Aisne at Berry au
Bac.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgg4Fj5-bP-mJ4azSYs4DINr3qP8tJmb6zBlG5SgqfVbxomdFYChLouffVQsyM5wWIXZsQOHHTBI4wNkLRhQStx6sQIuWEbqunGPx8YVOn5lMv3BVOku18FVBEpBVpXLx69d0f_GTlvbpi8/s1600/Worcesters.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="652" data-original-width="800" height="162" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgg4Fj5-bP-mJ4azSYs4DINr3qP8tJmb6zBlG5SgqfVbxomdFYChLouffVQsyM5wWIXZsQOHHTBI4wNkLRhQStx6sQIuWEbqunGPx8YVOn5lMv3BVOku18FVBEpBVpXLx69d0f_GTlvbpi8/s200/Worcesters.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Men of the Worcestershire Regiment<br />defending the Aisne south bank</span></td></tr>
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<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Ludendorff’s day 1 success was, for the
first time in Kaiserschlacht, beyond his objectives (see map). He was in a
position to advance rapidly to the Marne, and if his flanks could broaden the
sharp salient he was creating, he could sniff Paris. By the end of the next
day, his forces were on the high ground north of Soissons, and infiltrating to
the east of the town.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">However, that same day saw the first
significant involvement of the American army. Its 1<sup>st</sup> Division,
acting with the French 1<sup>st</sup> Army, was part of a successful
counter-attack and capture of Cantigny, near Montdidier. This pressurised the
north-west of the German advance, and was an ominous sign, since 250,000
American troops were now arriving in France every month.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">On 29<sup>th</sup> came the next German
surge towards the Marne. Soissons fell, and by the evening of 30<sup>th</sup>
von Boehne had control of a ten mile stretch of the Marne, around Chateau
Thierry. However, on his flanks he could not advance beyond Soissons, nor could von Below take Reims.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEho600C7mhfs3Yb5Ig83wZX0-MpzIemg-0OGkACMMnMGXXvCPd0Bb1H2HNgcI3AluFVrvgF2AjrQvPUeUD_RuXftThbSfYA8m45Injkivif1hxBpWI6FdujCI7x07zulMDKk0EWyMM7y_Bd/s1600/Paul_Maistre.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="300" data-original-width="234" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEho600C7mhfs3Yb5Ig83wZX0-MpzIemg-0OGkACMMnMGXXvCPd0Bb1H2HNgcI3AluFVrvgF2AjrQvPUeUD_RuXftThbSfYA8m45Injkivif1hxBpWI6FdujCI7x07zulMDKk0EWyMM7y_Bd/s200/Paul_Maistre.png" width="156" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Paul Maistre - somewhat<br />harshly sacked for caving<br />in at Les Chemin des Dames</span></td></tr>
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<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Ludendorff was reaching the limits of his
advance. He needed desperately to broaden the base of his salient, the tip of
which was Chateau Thierry. The lure of Paris was too great for him to stop, but
it meant he must commit all of his forty Divisions and most of his reserve –
the very trap into which he had planned to force Foch. A series of actions, very
costly for the Germans, created an uneasy stalemate by 3<sup>rd</sup> June, and
a need for Ludendorff<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to switch the
focus of his attack. This came on 9<sup>th</sup> June, with a major attack to
the west, led by von Hutier in the Montdidier-Noyons sector. He was seeking to
reach Compiegne, from where he could attack Paris from a more northerly
direction. Desperate attack encountered desperate defence (shades of Verdun),
and von Hutier’s storm troopers had only limited success. Nevertheless, on 10<sup>th</sup>
June the French were falling back towards Paris, before a defensive arrangement
by General Mangin (now back in favour, see Post 13/5/2017) defined the furthest point
of the German effort.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">From now, counter-attack tactics by Mangin
and increasing numbers of American reinforcements began to turn the tide on a battle
front before Paris that now stretched for
nearly 100 miles – recalling the great 1914 Marne battle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Final German efforts to break through at Courcelles,
on 13<sup>th</sup> June, and Reims, on 19<sup>th</sup> June, were repulsed with
very heavy German losses. The German storm troop tactics had finally been blunted, then
exhausted. A lull followed for nearly one month, but when hostilities resumed the Allies</span> would be the ones on the front foot.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">* codenamed by
Ludendorff, as with other Kaisershlacht initiatives, as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Operation Blucher-Yorck </i>(after two Prussian generals of the
Napoleonic wars) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />
<br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-54049528449962379302018-05-31T22:21:00.001+01:002018-05-31T22:21:04.256+01:00The Czech Legion: Part 2
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgya_k1HMM87SGiM3wIH8Xs5iz9RF8H_jrnYXNWsddDzeUiLNVnRSCsMHEmTlJaI32FSqsWr_0uLYnLj3Ps_gH76FhNlJtSHVc2dFbwjFcwQplUwmmFJKYxvHO6aFYqjn7s2fDAaqA-cKLW/s1600/TSR.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="780" data-original-width="962" height="323" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgya_k1HMM87SGiM3wIH8Xs5iz9RF8H_jrnYXNWsddDzeUiLNVnRSCsMHEmTlJaI32FSqsWr_0uLYnLj3Ps_gH76FhNlJtSHVc2dFbwjFcwQplUwmmFJKYxvHO6aFYqjn7s2fDAaqA-cKLW/s400/TSR.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">The Trans Siberian Railway - completed only a few years <br />before WW1.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>We left the story in late 1917, when the
remarkable Thomas Masaryk had take advantage of the political turmoil in Russia
to persuade Kerensky’s commander-in chief (Brusilov) to create the Czech Legion
as an army corps <u>under the control of the French Army</u> (See Post 11/6/2017). </i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>The
size of the corps was increased significantly when the Russians gave permission<u>
</u>to the Czechoslovak National Council (Chairman being Masaryk) to recruit
Czech and Slovak volunteers from the Austria-Hungary prisoner of war camps,
creating the ‘First Division of the Czechoslovak Corps in Russia’, otherwise
known as the Czech Legion (CL). By early 1918 numbers had swollen from a few
thousand to nearly 40,000. Their stated aim – to travel via Siberia and Canada,
thence to the western Front to join the French forces there - became a massive,
complex logistical exercise. The complexity was increased by the events of late
1917. The seizure of power by the Bolsheviks did not merely give Masaryk a new
set of leaders to negotiate with. The commencement of peace negotiations at
Brest-Litovsk led by Trotsky (See Post 22/1/2018) risked the overwhelming of
the nascent CL (mostly in Ukraine at this time) before it could even start its
marathon journey. To the south, the descent of Austria-Hungary to political
disarray strengthened the independence case for Czechoslovakia. However, this
was outweighed by the military disaster at Caporetto (See Post 13/11/2017). Its
outcome was that the entire eastern and southern fronts had effectively been
silenced. The only place now for the Czechs to make a military contribution in
order to strengthen Allied support for their cause was the Western Front. So,
despite the many obstacles, the CL began to assemble for its 13,000 miles
odyssey.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Looking at a map of the world - which
confirms the Eastern Front to have been a mere 150 miles from the Western – it seems
incredible that the CL’s only option was the Trans Siberian Railway (TSR) to
Vladivostok (see map). Negotiations for its safe passage to Voronezh and Penza
at the western end of the TSR took until mid February. The Bolsheviks feared that the CL
might be persuaded to join their counter-revolutionary opponents. By the time
they agreed to Masaryk’s requests, Trotsky’s own filibustering efforts at
Brest-Litovsk had come to an end, and the Germans had resumed their incursions
into Ukraine, launching operation Fist Strike (Faustschlag). They nearly cut off
the CL’s escape route, but in fierce fighting from 5-13<sup>th</sup> March, the
legionnaires successfully resisted them at the Battle of Baklmach. Their
difficulties had barely started. Their erstwhile supporters – the Allies - triggered a new development. So concerned by the Russian collapse, and its
likely impact on the entire war, the French and British decided that the CL
should bolster the Allied supply route for supporting Russia’s continuation in
the war – the northern port of Archangel. They issued orders to this effect,
against the wishes of Masaryk. Ironically, support for the CL came from an
unexpected source. The Soviet Commissar for national affairs (one Joseph
Stalin) had no wish to fall in with orders from imperialists, and declared that
the CL’s journey to Vladivostok was “just and fully acceptable”*. However, the
price of his support was high. In what became known as the ‘Penza Agreement’,
the CL was to surrender all but a handful of its weapons to the Bolsheviks, and
was to accept onboard a Penza Soviet Commissar in every train in the convoy. If
the latter was intended to smooth the passage of the trains through each of the
stopping points along the railway, it failed. When the first trains
reached Samara, on the Volga towards the Ural Mountains, they ran into a
different Soviet – unaware of, or dismissive of, the Penza Soviet’s agreement. They
demanded the remainder of the CL’s arms, and generally were as obstructive as
they could be. In the confused anarchy of revolutionary Russia, similar scenes
played out in dozens of stations along the railway’s path. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">On 14<sup>th</sup> May, at Chelyabinsk,
east of the Urals, a confrontation took place between Hungarian prisoners of
war and Czech legionnaires that led to the Revolt of the Legions. On learning
of the clash Trotsky (now Minister of War) ordered the arrest and disarmament
of the CL. A few days later, an army congress was convened in Chelyabinsk,
where the Czechs refused to disarm, even resisting the pleas from Masaryk to
comply. <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEih8qSKrxEcfqHWCwGDdo-e53mDbHuiCNl0gQH8KMsoJsmi2Cp5Drcf8h8N03OQ1YIhUEZ_fu12UETn50Ex9Zp1XtcNV4DNGLMga2a4coavXtey6QOekiY6dYS3H2__XUVFmoEYxcWeokJQ/s1600/Diterikhs.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="308" data-original-width="220" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEih8qSKrxEcfqHWCwGDdo-e53mDbHuiCNl0gQH8KMsoJsmi2Cp5Drcf8h8N03OQ1YIhUEZ_fu12UETn50Ex9Zp1XtcNV4DNGLMga2a4coavXtey6QOekiY6dYS3H2__XUVFmoEYxcWeokJQ/s1600/Diterikhs.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Gen. Mikhail Diterikhs. Escaped the<br />Bolsheviks in Ukraine to become<br />Chief of Staff to the Czech Legion.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Fighting broke out between the Czechs and the Red Army at the various
stations along the TSR. Generally the Czechs were far superior to the fledgling
Red Army, and in the weeks from May to July they took possession of the whole
of the TSR, effectively taking control of all of Siberia – one sixth of the
world’s land mass! The Legionnaires, under command of a white Russian, General Mikhail Diterikhs, managed to overthrow the Bolshevik Soviet of Vladivostok and on 6<sup>th</sup>
July, in an extraordinary turn of events, declared Vladivostok to be an Allied
protectorate. They used it as a base to send back trains to support their
comrades struggling on the long west to east passage.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">By early September they had claimed control
of the entire TSR. The emerging public stories of the Legionnaires’
achievements stirred the world. President Wilson abandoned his opposition to
any American intervention in Russia, agreeing that American and Japanese troops
should be sent to Vladivostok to help with the rescue of the CL. By the time
they arrived, the Czechs were already in control of the port city. The feats of
the CL brought more political support for the Czech cause, and for the
government-in-waiting in Paris.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">There was an earth shattering sideshow to
this drama on 16<sup>th</sup> July 1918. The advance of the CL and its imminent
takeover of the city of Yekaterinburg pressured Lenin into ordering the
executions of the Tsar and his family and close friends, being held captive
just outside the city.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Winston Churchill employed his flair for
historic awareness in recording <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“The pages of history recall scarcely any
parallel episode at once so romantic in character and so extensive in scale.
Thus through a treacherous breach of faith, by a series of accidents and
chances which no one in the world had foreseen, the whole of Russia from the
Volga to the Pacific Ocean, a region almost as large as the continent of
Africa, had passed by magic into the control of the Allies”.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">In October a Mid-European Union conference
involving representatives of eleven countries was held in Philadelphia USA to
discuss progress towards President Wilson’s fourteen points (See Post
13/1/2018). It was a testy affair, but on 26<sup>th</sup> October, Masaryk
himself announced the Union’s Declaration of Common Aims, which included government
by consent and self-determination, with civil rights for all civilians.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Masaryk had all but achieved his dream of
an independent Czech nation, and the dazzling efforts of the Czech Legion had
helped significantly to get him over the line.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">*</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Dreams of a Great Small Nation. McNamara Kevin J. p198<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-31085092316852826222018-05-10T14:41:00.001+01:002018-05-10T14:41:13.139+01:00Kaiserschlacht 6: The Battle of the Lys Part 2
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPi-QBshx43GALrICFvbA3d4RW3bkJjQ_DwIyiidOQVh5H5ydR-aEVTHiB3zk3vrnkrkCHBx9Y4PeoTmII9BCReI8mVpthooaoFGUci9RUx_dUb2rT9oawv2aD_CPoVKs0KB1RC0CFe2Fg/s1600/Scan+1.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1038" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPi-QBshx43GALrICFvbA3d4RW3bkJjQ_DwIyiidOQVh5H5ydR-aEVTHiB3zk3vrnkrkCHBx9Y4PeoTmII9BCReI8mVpthooaoFGUci9RUx_dUb2rT9oawv2aD_CPoVKs0KB1RC0CFe2Fg/s400/Scan+1.jpeg" width="258" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">'Backs to the Wall" time. The alarming</span><br style="color: blue; font-size: medium;" /><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">advance made by Operation Georgette.</span> </td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>The end of the first week of Operation
Georgette saw both sides’ fate hanging in the balance. The Germans had to pause
to re-group and to supply their troops. For the British, Bethune and Hazebrouck
were still at risk, and the Germans were now pressurising<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the full range of Flanders hills west of
Ypres, from Mont des Cats behind Bailleul to Mount Kemmel. </i> <i>Not only Ypres, but the route to the coastal ports was opening.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">It was at this stage, on 11<sup>th</sup>
April that the dour Haig, unable to persuade Foch to release more reserves from
further south, issued his most famous and Nelsonian order of the day: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“There is no other course open to us but to
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critical moment”. </i>Things would get worse before they got better. On 14<sup>th</sup>
Bailleul fell, and on 16<sup>th</sup> so too did Wytschaete and Spanbroekmoelen.
By the 18<sup>th</sup> the Germans were ready to advance on Mount Kemmel from
the south and west. Success here would all but cut off Ypres, prompting an
Allied retreat to the channel, and necessitating flooding of the coastal plain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Ludendorff’s revision of Georgette now had
two immediate objectives: the capture of Bethune, and the isolation of Ypres by
taking Mount Kemmel. Hazebrouck and a retreat to the coast would then follow as
a matter of course. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">To increase the pressure on Ypres,
Ludendorff authorised Operation Tannenberg (an emotive choice recalling the
great pincer like German victory of 1914 see Post…). This was to be a huge movement
with Kemmel in the south, the coastal route in the north, and the beleaguered
Ypres caught in the pincers. The crucial engagements took place on 17<sup>th</sup>
and 18<sup>th</sup> April. Firstly the Belgian forces were successful in
rebuffing the coastal movement. Strong counter attacks rapidly reversed some
initial German gains, and the right hand pincer ground to a halt almost before
it had started. The left hand pincer was also rebuffed in several places, but
made sufficient progress to take the southern and western aspects of Kemmel,
and took all of Wytschaete. It was now able to overlook the remains of Ypres,
almost one year after it had been driven from the ridge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">South of the Lys, von Quast made his assault
towards Bethune along his whole section from Givenchy to Merville. To capture
Bethune he had to get across the La Bass</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Lucida Grande";">é</span><span lang="EN-US">e
canal. Despite reaching the eastern bank along much its length, his attempts
to cross all ended in costly failure. The defence put up by 4 Division of
Horne’s Army fully met the demands of Haig’s order of the day. Holding Givenchy proved the key to the defence of Bethune.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">This was the beginning of the end of the
Battle of the Lys. The German machine had been comprehensively repulsed in the
north of Belgium, and severely damaged in its failure to cross the La Bassée
canal in front of Bethune. Only in the centre, at Mount Kemmel, could
Ludendorff hope to gain Ypres, and this would prove to be the final act of the
battle*. Sporadic action continued but for the next week both sides prepared for
this decisive moment. By now Foch was taking the lead on tactics, and he
brought in French reserve divisions to strengthen the Kemmel defences. </span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiISx08LCioEnZV0pazFkVRWIoe1cJPVfJqdUrcuCMGcyXw4JWgYOX8Qwd-STHnQew6e652A09M1O8tCpnjN4qv8gRVTkpRQr-BVukU-CznZ7rB8LGIHVVezy3wN5FW58-B-fJ97vRGy1at/s1600/Mount+Kemmel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="309" data-original-width="632" height="195" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiISx08LCioEnZV0pazFkVRWIoe1cJPVfJqdUrcuCMGcyXw4JWgYOX8Qwd-STHnQew6e652A09M1O8tCpnjN4qv8gRVTkpRQr-BVukU-CznZ7rB8LGIHVVezy3wN5FW58-B-fJ97vRGy1at/s400/Mount+Kemmel.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">The bleak view of Mount Kemmel in April 1918. Hardly<br />Himalayan, but at 500 feet, it dominated the views <br />over Ypres and to the coast</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The
attack came on 25<sup>th</sup> April, following an opening bombardment from
Meeteren (west of Kemmel) to the Ypres-Comine canal. The fighting of the next
four days matched any of the war for its fierceness, with thousands of British,
French and German casualties. As in OM, the Germans almost made all of their
objectives, but fell just short before losing ground to counter-attacks. They
did reach the highest point of Kemmel, and the road from Ypres to Poperinge
but, exhausted, by the end of April they were contained by Allied
reinforcements. A final attempt to break through on the coastal route north of
Ypres had again been successfully beaten off by the Belgian forces. By the end
of May, Ludendorff’s focus had shifted again, this time for his final gambit of
the Kaiserschlacht – against Paris from the Aisne.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The battle of the Lys was a turning phase
of the war. The Germans won tactical victories but failed strategically. Their
armies were showing fallibility, and the innovative shock tactics were
regressing to attritional warfare as a result of the high casualties they were
suffering. Foch was growing into his role as Allied supremo, and had acted
decisively and with resolve in the later stages of the battle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">At the close of Operations Michael and
Georgette the Germans retained their numerical superiority on the Western Front
– 208 Divisions ranged against 168 – but they had been badly damaged, and many
of their best units had been sacrificed. Most worryingly for Ludendorff he now
had nowhere to look for reinforcements from the East, whereas from the West,
American troops were beginning to arrive in numbers. His Kaiserschlacht was to
have one more roll of the dice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: x-small;">* The battle of Kemmelberg, as a distinct departure from Operation Georgette's original conception, is also frequently known as the Fourth Battle of Ypres </span></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-49658368271139036852018-05-08T14:03:00.000+01:002018-05-08T14:03:20.914+01:00Kaiserschlacht 5: The Battle of the Lys Part 1<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBwdf0v7ahYooYbRcqXzm6w8dvbYRadjajp3zr_BGrja5ctUvS6y6YkfYfi1G3ZVxvnRdUUmBIrNZm-F0i0yvwtsL3q8_Wgu5jYigqILBKiUTz8MsX4Y1X3UqFjodwXM15J7mxG1wIXX9U/s1600/Sixt+von+Armin.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="264" data-original-width="191" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBwdf0v7ahYooYbRcqXzm6w8dvbYRadjajp3zr_BGrja5ctUvS6y6YkfYfi1G3ZVxvnRdUUmBIrNZm-F0i0yvwtsL3q8_Wgu5jYigqILBKiUTz8MsX4Y1X3UqFjodwXM15J7mxG1wIXX9U/s320/Sixt+von+Armin.jpeg" width="231" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">General Sixt von Armin. Led defence<br />at Passchendaele, led attack for the Lys</span></td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>From 21<sup>st</sup> March to 10<sup>th</sup>
April 1918 the armies of von Below and Marwitz in the north and von Hutier’s 18<sup>th</sup>
army in the south had punched themselves out in Operation Michael (OM). Von
Below’s subsidiary operation Mars, against Vimy Ridge and Arras had been
gallantly rebuffed by Byng’s 3<sup>rd</sup> Army. Von Hutier had gained the
most ground, against Gough’s wounded 5<sup>th</sup> Army, and he was nearly at
Amiens. But his lines were extended and his men were tired. His left flank,
close to Montdidier, was vulnerable (see previous post) and Ludendorff decided
to switch his main attack to Flanders. He hoped not only to break through the
British lines there, but also to draw Foch’s reserves away from the Montdidier
and Amiens areas.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><i>An offensive through Flanders towards the
coast (and codenamed Operation George) had been one of Ludendorff’s preferred
Kaiserschlacht options before settling on Michael. Now, downgraded to Operation
Georgette, it became the focus of the next month. Although known to posterity
as the Battle of the Lys, it became a series of actions on a wider front than
the valley course of that small but significant river. As the month wore on,
rather like the mission creep of OM, it became an oversized pincer movement,
codenamed Tannenberg, to snuff out the Ypres salient, well to the north of the
Lys. This included an action along the coast between Nieuport and Langemarck.
This was held off so successfully by the modest Belgian forces now holding that sector that it provided more evidence of the German military machine
faltering from its invincibility of 1914 and 1915.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgl0v6naU2naa7sldPAkwSkdVGjMGCMDa96WYsf61Fmnjcg_0U93pyiFByxOLrBQo1UG69JLdb3Jfel-do-P57Geof-YWhsTJf5AWZfHTmQMevvD02KOavUK0YwyL0lRtvrEfqEyGvSlCnD/s1600/Lys1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="579" data-original-width="610" height="303" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgl0v6naU2naa7sldPAkwSkdVGjMGCMDa96WYsf61Fmnjcg_0U93pyiFByxOLrBQo1UG69JLdb3Jfel-do-P57Geof-YWhsTJf5AWZfHTmQMevvD02KOavUK0YwyL0lRtvrEfqEyGvSlCnD/s320/Lys1.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">The early incursion south of the Lys, heroically<br />resisted at Givenchy on German lef</span><br />
<span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">t</span><span style="color: blue;">http://www.longlongtrail.co.uk/the-battles-of-the-lys-1918/</span></td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-US">The revised Operation Georgette initially
would throw only nine Divisions against Horne’s 1st army (compared with 39
Divisions active on day 1 of OM).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Ludendorff’s aim was to break through in
French Flanders between La Bass</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "lucida grande";">é</span><span lang="EN-US">e and Armentieres (both held by the
British since the early fierce actions of the Race to the Sea in 1914 (See
post 1/1/2015). He planned to establish a line on the Aire-La Bass</span><span lang="EN-US">ee canal, whence he could advance and take control of Bethune and
Hazebrouck, paralyzing British communications, and leading to a retreat to the Channel
Ports. The marshy ground on either side of the Lys (and its tributary the Lawe)
made for difficult conditions – the main reason OM had been preferred as the
first strike. Nevertheless, Divisions of the 6<sup>th</sup> Army under von Quast’s
command, and the 4<sup>th</sup> Army under Sixt von Armin (the former south of
the Lys, the latter north of it) prepared their attack with customary
efficiency. The whole section was defended by the British 1<sup>st</sup>
(Horne) and 2<sup>nd</sup> (Plumer) armies, with two important exceptions. At
the very northern end, the Belgian army now defended from Nieuport on the coast
to Langemarck. Stationed in the centre of the British line were the two Portuguese
Divisions. Late into the war they had seen little actions to date and were
reluctant participants at this vital stage. In fact one of them had been
withdrawn to the reserves just before Georgette, but the 2<sup>nd</sup>
Division was placed right in the path of Quast’s stormtroopers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The battle commenced on the evening of 7<sup>th</sup>
April with an intense bombardment of gas shells. Unlike the short burst of OM,
this continued for a full 36 hours, before the storm troopers charged early on
the morning of 9th. Within two hours the Portuguese line was broken and the
Germans were pouring through the gap. This caused turning of the defence lines
on both sides of the gap, and a day of chaotic and fierce fighting at close
quarters. By the end of the day, advance units of von Quast’s infantry were well on
their way to Bethune. <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoWxsnVefrp109q_21zK9vwLJ0edGx43wOt-EPcB-zxBUcYEehOXqp3on8r5PSKYSUCOVwpBkESd8X0MPjuZUpicN1coxGZzCLXiqz448vAdzEW9DqFJOPZcnlQ-N1bd_qhgOYIJMGNGAC/s1600/von+Quast.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="207" data-original-width="150" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoWxsnVefrp109q_21zK9vwLJ0edGx43wOt-EPcB-zxBUcYEehOXqp3on8r5PSKYSUCOVwpBkESd8X0MPjuZUpicN1coxGZzCLXiqz448vAdzEW9DqFJOPZcnlQ-N1bd_qhgOYIJMGNGAC/s320/von+Quast.jpeg" width="231" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Ferdinand von Quast - another of<br />Ludendorff's veteran Prussian Generals.<br />Like von Armin he had fought in the<br />Franco-Prussian war of 1870</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
However, as in OM it was good progress but not sufficient
to meet Ludendorff’s demanding timetable. Further, as a result of the
unyielding defence on the British right, especially at Givenchy by the
Lancashire Division, Quast found his advanced infantry to be in a long, narrow
salient. Desperate fighting through the night saw both sides seeking to stabilise
their positions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Next, Sixt von Armin’s infantry pressured
on the right flank towards Armentieres and upwards towards the Messines Ridge –
held by the British since the famous victory there in June 1917<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(see Post 6/6/2017). Armentieres they had held since
1914, but by the night of the 10<sup>th</sup> had been compelled to withdraw
from the pulverised town. It seemed that between Givenchy at the southern end
and Messines to the north the Germans were certain to break through. They
renewed their attack the next day, making greater advances in the north, so
that Messines was conceded and the British line moved back to Wytschaete (how demoralising
that must have been). There was now a bulge in the British line that threatened
the rear of Ypres. This unplanned success away from his original targets led
Ludendorff to throw his reserves into a new action towards Ypres (reminiscent
of his actions in the southern zone in OM, where Amiens had replaced Arras as
his key strategic objective). It would prove to be a fatal error in the long
run, but the British crisis was far from over*. Although still some way
distant, both Bethune and Hazebrouck were threatened; while Plumer was forced
to move troops down from Passchendaele to support the defenders south west of
Ypres. The Germans continued to have greater success north of the River Lys,
pushing towards Bailleul, a key British administration centre and a major
obstacle en route to Hazebrouck.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">*”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Blindness seemed to have fallen for the moment on the German High
Command – a blindness born of too confident pride. It all but destroyed the
British Army; but it saved the Allied front, and in the long run gave them
victory” Buchan. A History of the Great War. Vol IV p225<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />seanhiltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10509129339872063144noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2684700807868911072.post-13318881170691087242018-04-03T10:29:00.001+01:002018-04-03T10:29:25.418+01:00"Kaiserschlacht" 4: The March Retreat<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3idBX57pZMvG-kkNpITT0FFn_vlk3gxVjrdGaJf9drEe_UEyxqrh1wggJH5W2-PNTjLZ6ZiEkTfil5_JQps1yjvD0Gfgmol2HytOMbBPjSxdiURmh09Y-uvV_zqW8F-61neRYwCKZT7zt/s1600/Foch.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1122" data-original-width="900" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3idBX57pZMvG-kkNpITT0FFn_vlk3gxVjrdGaJf9drEe_UEyxqrh1wggJH5W2-PNTjLZ6ZiEkTfil5_JQps1yjvD0Gfgmol2HytOMbBPjSxdiURmh09Y-uvV_zqW8F-61neRYwCKZT7zt/s200/Foch.jpg" width="160" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Ferdinand Foch.<br />Good man in a crisis</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<i><span style="font-family: "cambria"; font-size: 12pt;">The scale of the German attack on 21</span><sup style="font-family: Cambria;">st</sup><span style="font-family: "cambria"; font-size: 12pt;">
March had been unprecedented. A look at the map shows that the area captured in two
weeks was many times greater than the entire Allied gains of the five months
Somme campaign in 1916 (shaded area). Seemingly a major German victory? In
terms of ground gained, perhaps. But in other ways the gains were inadequate.
Firstly, Ludendorff’s objectives for day one had not been met (he was as guilty
as Haig of overoptimistic planning). Secondly, a look at the map and the
triangular shape of the final gains, shows much greater success in the southern
half of the sector. However, it was in the north that Ludendorff needed greater
progress to roll up the British army in Flanders; and it was in the north where
Byng’s 3</span><sup style="font-family: Cambria;">rd</sup><span style="font-family: "cambria"; font-size: 12pt;"> Army defences were much stronger than Gough’s 5</span><sup style="font-family: Cambria;">th</sup><span style="font-family: "cambria"; font-size: 12pt;">
Army. As Operation Michael progressed it was natural that the Germans would want
to exploit the breakthrough at the Crozat Canal (see previous post 21/3/2018), but
here they would have to travel further west to block the French routes fro reinforcement
to the British – and greater distances meant longer lines of communication. Von
Hutier’s demands for men and supplies began to outweigh those of von Below and von
Marwitz.</span></i><br />
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<!--StartFragment--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "cambria"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The 22<sup>nd</sup> April began badly for
Gough’s army in the south, and deterioration continued for several days.
Tergnier was captured by mid morning at the southern limit of Gough’s section,
and by early afternoon all of his men were on their rear most defensive lines,
from east of Peronne down to Tergnier (see map). </span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "cambria"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQT455me7MJNbdQiOZT8SXXAqQIKaPZflVo6BNAILtTMB3GhuIi8YxSMQfH4gae1KaQNrBMPksudv9_Ji3T6rixk4qIIvAK4llJoWgaCPOs49_C-EvSas6Y1XQEy6Pv-mpTlIa3PeP0rGr/s1600/Scan.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1323" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQT455me7MJNbdQiOZT8SXXAqQIKaPZflVo6BNAILtTMB3GhuIi8YxSMQfH4gae1KaQNrBMPksudv9_Ji3T6rixk4qIIvAK4llJoWgaCPOs49_C-EvSas6Y1XQEy6Pv-mpTlIa3PeP0rGr/s400/Scan.jpeg" width="330" /></a></span></div>
<br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "cambria"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Byng’s army was holding firm
in the north, but by the evening this distortion of the line was leading to
dangerous gaps between divisions. The Germans were exploiting these, and
desperate efforts at plugging them with reserves (including some French
companies arriving be bus) were barely adequate. The northernmost Corps of
Gough’s army, below the Flesquieres salient, led by General Ivor Maxse, pulled back
to the Somme at Peronne to support those on his right. This of course, created a
gap between the 5<sup>th</sup> and 3<sup>rd</sup> Armies, and Byng was obliged to
withdraw behind the Canal du Nord to align. He also lost some ground in front of
Arras including Bullecourt, but thereafter held firm.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 16px;">All through the night into the 23</span><sup style="font-family: Cambria;">rd</sup><span style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 16px;"> the 5</span><sup style="font-family: Cambria;">th</sup><span style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 16px;"> army pulled back, under severe pressure. Gough was soon faced with withdrawal across the Somme to avoid complete destruction</span><span style="font-size: 16px;"><span style="font-family: cambria;">. </span></span><span style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">He began this
on the morning, and all bridges and crossings were blown as soon as the men
could be got across. Buchan refers to Saturday 23</span><sup style="font-family: Cambria; text-align: center;">rd</sup><span style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;"> as </span><i style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">“possibly the most difficult day in the
annals of the British Army”</i><span style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">. Fierce rearguard actions continued all day
between Tergnier and Peronne, and north of the latter the Germans, by then end
of the day, had reached the furthest points of the Allied gains in November
1916. On this day, significant efforts were made by RAF aircraft harrying
German advances and supporting British withdrawals.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US">In a separate action on this momentous day
Ludendorff agreed to launch ‘Mars’ – a subsidiary operation to ‘Michael’, attacking
the British line north of Arras. However, Byng was alert to the danger, and had
withdrawn his men out of range of the German field artillery. The Germans were
frustrated and decided to wait until they could bring up heavy artillery.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Taking stock after three hard days of
rearguard actions, Petain agreed to Haig’s request to take over Gough’s section
south of Peronne. British units still remaining there now came under the French
command of General Fayolle (French Sixth Army). The days of 25<sup>th</sup> and 26<sup>th</sup> became
a managed retreat, with fierce fighting, heavy casualties and heroics. In
particular, the artillery, cavalry and RAF earned great credit for the support
of the hard pressed and exhausted infantry. On the old Somme battleground of Combles
and Lesboeufs (see post 30/8/2016) the valiant actions of the South African
Brigade (recalling ironically its amazing actions at nearby Delville Wood two
years earlier) resulted in its destruction, but enabled Byng’s right flank to
retreat and consolidate a line.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJd3omvIyZTs157grf0n3DDMw2ZHMTapiKCKxtUZFg6C0yk3oIWFYLkxE7_s1dfpRPHj5o4l3nq45SLmMRw_lD-lLe43tnrK7stLUy2zLucRcytmRPBnM7B4xXyHSFWz5QJXickUlqBc-f/s1600/Maxse.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="293" data-original-width="220" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJd3omvIyZTs157grf0n3DDMw2ZHMTapiKCKxtUZFg6C0yk3oIWFYLkxE7_s1dfpRPHj5o4l3nq45SLmMRw_lD-lLe43tnrK7stLUy2zLucRcytmRPBnM7B4xXyHSFWz5QJXickUlqBc-f/s200/Maxse.jpg" width="150" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Ivor Maxse. Stout<br />resistance. Made his<br />reputation in tactical<br />training for the final<br />victory.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US">By now the right and centre of Byng’s army
and the left of Gough’s were virtually back to the Somme front line of 1/7/1916,
whereas Maxse’s Corps was still clinging on near the Somme south of Peronne.
All were in weak and makeshift defences. Continued pressure pushed the lines
back beyond the Ancre, and to the south between the Somme and the Oise, making
Maxse’s position untenable. The Germans reached the important town of Noyon.
French reinforcements began to arrive in numbers, but the Germans punched a gap
in the line at Nesle, enabling rapid further progress and a check on the French
move towards Roye (see map).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The crisis was at hand. Haig had requested
the CIGS (Sir Henry Wilson) presence on site, and Lloyd George also sent Lord
Milner, Secretary of the War Cabinet. On 26<sup>th</sup> they met with Petain,
Foch and Clemenceau at Compiegnes. They agreed that the emergency called for
unified action, directed by a military supremo. The 66 years old Marshall
Ferdinand Foch was in the right place at the right time, and late on that day
became the Supreme Allied Forces Commander. He inherited a parlous position.
The route to Amiens was almost open, and the British and French armies in
danger of separation. Greatly to their credit, Gough and his staff (removed from
the front line action) organised a good defensive line to the east of Amiens.
This would hold and keep the two sides connected. After 26<sup>th</sup> the
line north of Albert stabilized, thanks to the arrival of reinforcements
including a new generation of smaller, more mobile tanks. There were also some
signs that the German juggernaut was running out of steam, through exhaustion
and extended communications. To the south, the Germans continued to make gains,
pushing south and west of Nesle, and heading towards Montdidier to block French
movements. Von Hutier’s most strenuous efforts took him within range of
Montdidier, but he was dangerously extended. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">March 28<sup>th</sup> proved another
tumultuous day. The Germans made their final concerted effort to break through
to Amiens. Although Ludendorff’s original plan had been stymied, he still hoped
that by taking the more southerly route, particularly capturing Amiens and
Montdidier, he could isolate the British army. To the north he re-launched
Operation Mars against Arras and Vimy Ridge with heavy artillery in support.
Magnificent defence and counter-offensive by 3<sup>rd</sup> army ensured that
this gambit failed completely to break through. Also, this day spelt then end
for Gough’s brave, shattered army. They were take completely out of the line,
to be replaced by Rawlinson’s 4<sup>th</sup> army. Rawlinson was ordered to hold a
seven miles section of the new front, south of the Somme (compare this with 5<sup>th</sup>
Army’s 42 miles section on 21<sup>st</sup> March).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The French now felt the force of von
Hutier’s thrusts to break through between Roye and Montreuil. After a two day
lull, he made his final small gains on 4<sup>th</sup> April. By 6<sup>th</sup>
April, Operation Michael was at an end. Amiens was safe, and the line held
there at Villers Bretonneux. The Noyons/Montdidier/Montreuil line was held by
the French. The Germans, in this sector, were punched out.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Nevertheless, the map showed extraordinary German gains, and there was consternation in London. Gough was scapegoated. It was
an undoubted defeat, but out of this disaster came two indicators of a shift in
fortunes. Firstly, Foch in his new role as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Generalissimo</i>
was able to achieve rapid transfer of colonial forces to reinforce Montdidier, holding off von Hutier; second was the repulse of von Below’s
forces at Arras and Vimy Ridge. Ludendorff’s memoirs record that action as the
point he realised the spirit of his army was cracking.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Thus, it was a defeat that showed the way
to victory. The<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>British suffered 300,000
casualties (German losses were similar). The 5<sup>th</sup> Army had barely a
chance – its ‘rout’ was epic nonetheless, and helped the armies either side of
it to foil the German plans. Byng’s 3<sup>rd</sup> army had blunted the
sharpest weapons the Germans could throw at them. Ludendorff still had other
places to look for his next attempt at the killer breakthrough, but time was
not on his side. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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